Glossary

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ACE-pigments

Complex intracellular inclusions were identified in brain cells of patients with non-inflammatory stealth virus encephalopathy. The cells showed extensive disruption of mitochondria leading to the suggestion that the inclusions were providing an alternative (non-mitochondria) source of cellular energy. Pigmented intracellular inclusions and extra-cellular materials were similarly identified in stealth virus cultures. A characteristic feature of these cultures is the progressive lessening of the cytopathic (cell damaging) effect that coincides with, and is dependent upon, the accumulation of these pigmented materials. Tissue culture and direct patient derived materials exhibit various qualities consistent with their functioning as energy transducers. Specifically, they are composed of conglomerates of finer particles that can display fluorescent, electrostatic, sound resonating and variable magnetic activities. Individual particles contain various combinations of different minerals. They can act as both electron donors and electron acceptors in redox reactions and can also generate gas bubbles from water. The viability of cells in cultures containing alternative cellular energy pigments (ACE-pigments) can be influenced by exposure to external electromagnetic, magnetic and sound frequencies that have no discernable effects on normal cell cultures. Enhanced cell growth and survival occurs upon exposure to relatively low intensities, while cell destruction occurs at higher intensity external energy exposure. Various natural products show ACE-pigment like activities, including a capacity of protecting cell cultures from the cytopathic effect of stealth viruses. These products are suitable for double blind clinical studies.

Adenoviruses

According to the CDC, Adenoviruses most commonly cause respiratory illness; however, depending on the infecting serotype, they may also cause various other illnesses, such as gastroenteritis, conjunctivitis, cystitis, and rash illness. Symptoms of respiratory illness caused by adenovirus infection range from the common cold syndrome to pneumonia, croup, and bronchitis. Adenoviruses are medium-sized (90-100 nm), nonenveloped icosohedral viruses containing double-stranded DNA. There are 49 immunologically distinct types (6 subgenera: A through F) that can cause human infections. Adenoviruses are unusually stable to chemical or physical agents and adverse pH conditions, allowing for prolonged survival outside of the body. Epidemiologic features: Although epidemiologic characteristics of the adenoviruses vary by type, all are transmitted by direct contact, fecal-oral transmission, and occasionally waterborne transmission. Some types are capable of establishing persistent asymptomatic infections in tonsils, adenoids, and intestines of infected hosts, and shedding can occur for months or years. Prevention: Vaccines were developed for adenovirus serotypes 4 and 7, but were available only for preventing ARD among military recruits.

Aflatoxin

Aflatoxin is one of the most potent carcinogens known to man and has been linked to a wide variety of human health problems. The FDA has established maximum allowable levels of total aflatoxin in food commodities at 20 parts per billion. The maximum level for milk products is even lower at 0.5 parts per billion. Primarily Aspergillus species fungi produce aflatoxin.

African Green Monkeys

Viruses can cause cell damage by various mechanisms including simple competition for the metabolic resources available to the cell. I have defined a grouping of cytopathic (cell damaging) viruses, termed stealth viruses, that fail to evoke an immune mediated inflammatory reaction (please refer to www.s3support.com for a complete list of publications). The best characterized stealth virus originated from the cytomegalovirus of African green monkeys. The vervet monkeys or green monkeys are medium-sized primates from the family of Old World monkeys. There are six species currently recognized, although some classify them all as a single species with numerous subspecies. Either way, they make up the entirety of the genus Chlorocebus. The native range of these monkeys is sub-Saharan Africa from Senegal and Ethiopia down to South Africa. However, in previous centuries, a number of these monkeys were taken as pets by slavers, and were transported across the Atlantic Ocean to the Caribbean islands, along with the enslaved Africans. The monkeys subsequently escaped or were released and became naturalized. The descendents of those populations are found on the West Indian islands of Barbados, Saint Kitts, Nevis, Anguilla, and Saint Maarten. A colony also exists in Broward County, Florida.[2]

Agrobacterium

Agrobacterium is a genus of Gram-negative bacteria that uses horizontal gene transfer to cause tumors in plants.

Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the causal agent of crown gall disease (the formation of tumours) in over 140 species of dicot. It is a rod shaped, Gram negative soil bacterium (Smith et al., 1907). Symptoms are caused by the insertion of a small segment of DNA (known as the T-DNA, for 'transfer DNA') into the plant cell,[1] which is incorporated at a semi-random location into the plant genome. In order to be virulent, the bacterium must contain a tumour-inducing plasmid (Ti plasmid or pTi), of 180 kb, which contains the T-DNA and all the genes necessary to transfer it to the plant cell. Many strains of A. tumefaciens do not contain a pTi. Since the Ti plasmid is essential to cause disease, pre-penetration events in the rhizosphere occur to promote bacterial conjugation - exchange of plasmids amongst bacteria. In the presence of opines, A. tumefaciens produces a diffusible conjugation signal called 30C8HSL or the Agrobacterium autoinducer. This activates the transcription factor TraR, positively regulating the transcription of genes required for conjugation. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Gall

Alkaline Reserve

alkali reserve), 1. the amount of buffer compounds (for example, sodium bicarbonate, dipotassium phosphate, proteins) in the blood capable of neutralizing acids; one of the buffer systems of the blood that can neutralize the acid valences formed in the body. It is made up of the base of weak acid salts and is usually measured by determining the bicarbonate concentration of the plasma. n 2. the concentration of bicarbonate ions (HCO3-) in the blood. These ions serve as a reserve in that they may be displaced by anions (for example, Cl-, SO4-2, PO4-3). Displacement of bicarbonate ions occurs mainly by means of the chloride shift. The role of the buffer system is such that a large influx of acid or base ions from either metabolic function or ingestion can be neutralized by the alkaline reserves from the mineral and protein salts in the blood and tissue fluids. A strong acid is transformed into a weak base. Consequently, the pH level of the blood fluctuates very little, and the tissue cells are constantly bathed in a continuously buffered solution. http://www.answers.com/topic/alkaline-reserve

Alkaline reserves

Amber

Amber (or, technically, resinite) is fossilized tree resin (not sap), which has been appreciated for its color and natural beauty since neolithic times. Good quality amber is used for the manufacture of ornamental objects and jewelry. There are five classes of amber, defined on the basis of their chemical constituents. Because it originates as a soft, sticky tree resin, amber sometimes includes animal and plant material as inclusions. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Amber

amphibionts

Normal floras are commonly referred to as amphibionts, ranging from commensals to pathogens. The amphibionts are obligately parasitic on man and other animals but are not obligately pathogenic. They are encountered at least as often in the absence of disease as in its presence. The indigenous microorganisms may flourish in the general region of tissue damage and contribute to the disease state as opportunists, rather than primary etiological agents. Thus, these organisms may be implicated although Kochs postulates would not necessarily hold true. The indigenous fungi are primarily saprophytes of soil, which show preference for a parasitic habitat. Because of their primary saprophytic role, it may appear questionable to call them amphibionts. However, according to Rosenbury, an amphibiont may be considered to be any organism, which is “. . . encountered in one or more typical indigenous locations frequently, and distinctly more frequently, than in the adjacent environment.” On this basis, and according to the propositions that an organism routinely isolated from the body in the absence of disease may be indigenous, fungi are included, even thought they rarely indigenous to the human body.2,3

Antibody-Nanoparticle Computational Modeling

he conjugation of antibodies and nanoparticles with high affinity & specificity through receptor-ligand recognition modes is of paramount importance in the development of vehicles which can be used for diagnosis, treatment of cancer and various other diseases, application of immunodiagnostic nano-biosensors etc. The bio-nanocomplex formed by an artificial nanomaterial (nanoliposomes , nanoparticles ) and a biological entity such as an antibody is brought about by the formation of covalent bonds based on their specific chemical and structural properties such as water solubility, biocompatibility, and biodegradability. [5]. There is a requirement of a comprehensive understanding of the relationship of the thermodynamic & kinetic aspects of antibody-membrane association, translational , rotational mobilities of membrane bound antibodies, interactions with the diverse cell surface , circulating molecules and various artificial nanomolecules as well as the conformation. These details are of great importance in the development, application of various nanoscale immunodiagnostic devices. The association of antibodies with cell surfaces is a key molecular event in antibody-mediated immune mechanisms such as phagocytosis, antibody mediated immune dependent cell-mediated cytotoxicity.[6]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanobiotechnology

Antigen

An antigen (from antibody generator[1][2]) is a substance that prompts the generation of antibodies and can cause an immune response.[3] "Self" antigens are usually tolerated by the immune system; whereas "Non-self" antigens are identified as intruders and attacked by the immune system. Autoimmune disorders arise from the immune system reacting to its own antigens. Similarly, an immunogen is seen as a specific type of antigen. The overlapping concepts of immunogenicity and antigenicity are thereby subtly different.

Apicomplexa Protist

Apicomplexa is one of the biggest and most well-known taxon of parasitic protists. There is about 4,000 known species.[1] Apicomplexans are characterized by a very unique organelle called an apical complex. They form spores, unicellular and are parasites of animals. They move using flagella or pseudopods. One of the most well known diseases caused by one of these organisms is malaria. There is other diseases such as; babesiosis, Cryptosporidiosis, Coccidian diseases, Cyclosporiasis, and Toxoplasmosis

Archaea

The Archaea en-us-Archaea.ogg [ɑrˈkiə] (help·info) are a group of single-celled microorganisms. A single individual or species from this domain is called an archaeon (sometimes spelled "archeon"). They have no cell nucleus or any other organelles within their cells. In the past they were viewed as an unusual group of bacteria and named archaebacteria but since the Archaea have an independent evolutionary history and show many differences in their biochemistry from other forms of life, they are now classified as a separate domain in the three-domain system. In this system the three main branches of evolutionary descent are the Archaea, Eukarya and Bacteria. Archaea are further divided into four recognized phyla, but many more phyla may exist. Of these groups the Crenarchaeota and the Euryarchaeota are most intensively studied. Classifying the Archaea is still difficult, since the vast majority have never been studied in the laboratory and have only been detected by analysis of their nucleic acids in samples from the environment. Although archaea have, in the past, been classed with bacteria as prokaryotes, this classification has been described as outdated, since it fails to distinguish between the three very distinct domains of life. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Archaea

Astaxanthin

Astaxanthin (pronounced as-tuh-zan'-thin) is a carotenoid. It belongs to a larger class of phytochemicals known as terpenes. It is classified as a xanthophyll, which means "yellow leaves". Like many carotenoids, it is a colorful, lipid-soluble pigment. Astaxanthin is produced by microalgae, yeast, salmon, trout, krill, shrimp, crayfish, crustaceans, and the feathers of some birds.[1][2] Professor Basil Weedon was the first to map the structure of astaxanthin. Astaxanthin, unlike some carotenoids, does not convert to Vitamin A (retinol) in the human body. Too much Vitamin A is toxic for a human, but astaxanthin is not. However, it is a powerful antioxidant; it is 10 times more capable than other carotenoids.[3] While astaxanthin is a natural nutritional component, it can be found as a food supplement. The supplement is intended for human, animal, and aquaculture consumption. The commercial production of astaxanthin comes from both natural and synthetic sources. The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approved astaxanthin (See: Regulations below) as a food coloring (or color additive) for specific uses in animal and fish foods[4]. The European Union (actually European Commission) considers it food dye within the E number system, E161j[5].

Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (also known as Arteriosclerotic Vascular Disease or ASVD) is the condition in which an artery wall thickens as the result of a build-up of fatty materials such as cholesterol. It is a syndrome affecting arterial blood vessels, a chronic inflammatory response in the walls of arteries, in large part due to the accumulation of macrophage white blood cells and promoted by Low-density lipoproteins (plasma proteins that carry cholesterol and triglycerides) without adequate removal of fats and cholesterol from the macrophages by functional high density lipoproteins (HDL), (see apoA-1 Milano). It is commonly referred to as a hardening or furring of the arteries. It is caused by the formation of multiple plaques within the arteries.[1] The atheromatous plaque is divided into three distinct components: 1. The atheroma ("lump of wax", from Athera, wax in Greek,), which is the nodular accumulation of a soft, flaky, yellowish material at the center of large plaques, composed of macrophages nearest the lumen of the artery 2. Underlying areas of cholesterol crystals 3. Calcification at the outer base of older/more advanced lesions.

Bacterial conjugation

Bacterial conjugation is the transfer of genetic material between bacteria through direct cell-to-cell contact,

Baculoviruses

Baculoviruses are pathogens that attack insects and other arthropods. Like some human viruses, they are usually extremely small and are composed primarily of double-stranded DNA that codes for genes needed for virus establishment and reproduction. Because this genetic material is easily destroyed by exposure to sunlight or by conditions in the host's gut, an infective baculovirus particle (virion) is protected by protein coat called a polyhedron (plural polyhedra: see Figs. A, B, and C). Most insect baculoviruses must be eaten by the host to produce an infection, which is typically fatal to the insect. The majority of baculoviruses used as biological control agents are in the genus Nucleopolyhedrovirus, so "baculovirus" or "virus" will hereafter refer to nucleopolyhedroviruses. Baculoviruses can be found wherever insects exist. Because rain and wind readily carry baculoviruses from place to place, it is likely that every piece of land and body of water contains some virus particles. It is widely accepted by researchers that most produce currently on the shelves is "contaminated" by baculovirus particles (Heimpel et al., 1973). In fact, the pervasiveness of baculovirus particles, along with the results of tests performed in conjunction with registration, may be considered both indirect and direct evidence for the safety of these agents. The above definition came from an excellent page on Baculovirus at http://www.nysaes.cornell.edu/ent/biocontrol/pathogens/baculoviruses.html

Benomyl

Benomyl (also marketed as Benlate) is a fungicide which was introduced in 1968 by DuPont. It is a systemic benzimidazole fungicide that is selectively toxic to micro-organisms and to invertebrates, especially earthworms. Benomyl binds to microtubules, interfering with cell functions such as meiosis and intracellular transportation. The selective toxicity of benomyl as a fungicide is possibly due to its heightened effect on fungal rather than mammalian microtubules. Pesticides used on cereals as a fungicide, such as benomyl have potentated the mycotoxin in selective genes. In 1987 at Yale University, Karl Hager and Mike Plamann performed a very important study, which was based on the plasmid pH303 and its derivatives integrated at his-3 by a single crossover. When introduced to benomyl, the mutant allele of his-3(1-234-723) was present in the genome, and its mutation was mapped to be somewhere downstream of the Sall restriction site. A cloning will occur at a higher transformation frequency using linear than using circular DNA, and the transformation frequencies are independent of the mating type of the host.11

Biofilm

A multilayered bacterial population embedded in a polysaccharide matrix and attached to some surface. http://nanotransformation.com/earth-changes-transformation-morgellons/sea-mucus-bacterial-pandemic.html

Biomolecule

A biomolecule is any organic molecule that is produced by a living organism, including large polymeric molecules such as proteins, polysaccharides, and nucleic acids as well as small molecules such as primary metabolites, secondary metabolites, and natural products. As organic molecules, biomolecules consist primarily of carbon and hydrogen, nitrogen, and oxygen, and, to a smaller extent, phosphorus and sulfur. Other elements sometimes are incorporated but are much less common. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biomolecule

Bionanotechnology

Bionanotechnology is the intersection of biology and nanotechnology. Bionanotechnology is a broad and somewhat vague term which is sometimes used interchangeably with nanobiotechnology, which usually refers more specifically to the use of nanotechnological devices for applications in biotechnology. Bionanotechnology may also refer to the use of biomolecules for applications in nanotechnology. A major example of this is DNA nanotechnology, which uses self-assembling nucleic acid structures to control matter at the nanoscale. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bionanotechnology

Biosensor

A biosensor is a device for the detection of an analyte that combines a biological component with a physicochemical detector component.[1] It consists of 3 parts: * the sensitive biological element (biological material (eg. tissue, microorganisms, organelles, cell receptors, enzymes, antibodies, nucleic acids, etc), a biologically derived material or biomimic) The sensitive elements can be created by biological engineering. * the transducer or the detector element (works in a physicochemical way; optical, piezoelectric, electrochemical, etc.) that transforms the signal resulting from the interaction of the analyte with the biological element into another signal (i.e., transducers) that can be more easily measured and quantified; * associated electronics or signal processors that is primarily responsible for the display of the results in a user-friendly way. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biosensors

Biotransformation

Fortunately, animal organisms have developed a number of biochemical processes that convert lipophilic compounds to more hydrophilic metabolites. These biochemical processes are termed biotransformation and are usually enzymatic in nature. It should be stressed that biotransformation is the sum of the processes by which a foreign invader such as a chemical is subjected to chemical change by living organisms (Figure 1 1). This definition implies that a particular chemical may undergo a number of chemical changes. It may mean that the parent molecule is chemically modified at a number of positions or that a particular metabolite of the parent compound may undergo additional modification. The end result of the biotransformation reaction(s) is that the metabolites are chemically distinct from the parent compound. Metabolites are usually more hydrophilic than the parent compound. This enhanced water solubility reduces the ability of the metabolite to partition into biologic membranes and thus restricts the distribution of the metabolites to the various tissues, decreases the renal metabolite(s), and ultimately promotes the excretion of the chemical by the urinary and biliary fecal routes. http://www.hildegarde-staninger.com/morgellons/morgellons---a-nano-911-foreign-invader.html

Chagas' Disease

A deadly disease caused by the flagellate protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi. T. cruzi is commonly transmitted to humans and other mammals by an insect vector, the blood-sucking assassin bugs of the subfamily Triatominae (family Reduviidae) most commonly species belonging to the Triatoma, Rhodnius, and Panstrongylus genera. The disease may also be spread through blood transfusion and organ transplantation, ingestion of food contaminated with parasites, and from a mother to her fetus. It has an initial symptomology of flu-like symptoms and facial swelling, followed by long term penetration and destruction of the internal organs resulting in heart failure or death. Chronic organ damage can take 10-20 years to manifest after the initial infection, so it often goes undiagnosed for decades.

Chromobacterium violaceum

Chromobacterium violaceum is a Gram-negative, facultative anaerobic, non-sporing coccobacillus. It is part of the normal flora of water and soil of tropical and sub-tropical regions of the world. It produces a natural antibiotic called violacein, which may be useful for the treatment of colon and other cancers [1]. It grows readily on nutrient agar, producing distinctive smooth low convex colonies with a dark violet metallic sheen (due to violacein production). Its full genome was published in 2003.[2]

Chronic granulomatous disease

Chronic granulomatous disease (CGD) (also known as "Bridges–Good syndrome," "Chronic granulomatous disorder," and "Quie syndrome"[1]) is a diverse group of hereditary diseases in which certain cells of the immune system have difficulty forming the reactive oxygen compounds (most importantly, the superoxide radical) used to kill certain ingested pathogens.[2] This leads to the formation of granulomata in many organs.[3] CGD affects about 1 in 200,000 people in the United States, with about 20 new cases diagnosed each year.[4][5] This condition was first discovered in 1954, and in 1957 described as "a fatal granulomatosus of childhood".[6][7] The underlying cellular mechanism that causes chronic granulomatous disease was discovered in 1967, and research since that time has further elucidated the molecular mechanisms underlying the disease.[8] Chronic granulomatous disease is the name for a genetically heterogeneous group of immunodefeciencies. The core defect is a failure of phagocytic cells to kill organisms that they have engulfed because of defects in a system of enzymes that produce free radicals and other toxic small molecules. There are several types, including chronic X-linked disease, chronic b-negative disease, X-linked cytochrome b-positive disease, x-linked variant disease, and atypical granulomatous disease[9]. Classically, patients with chronic granulomatous disease will suffer from recurrent bouts of infection due to the decreased capacity of their immune system to fight off disease-causing organisms. The recurrent infections they acquire are specific and are, in decreasing order of frequency: * pneumonia * abscesses of the skin, tissues, and organs * suppurative arthritis * osteomyelitis * bacteremia/fungemia * superficial skin infections such as cellulitis or impetigo Most people with CGD are diagnosed in childhood, usually before age 5.[10] Early diagnosis is important since these people can be placed on antibiotics to ward off infections before they occur.

CLM

Cutaneous larva migrans ("CLM") is a skin disease in humans, caused by the larvae of various nematode parasites, the most common of which in the Americas is Ancylostoma braziliense. Sometimes referred to as "creeping eruption" or "ground itch", in some parts of the Southern USA this condition is also referred to as "sandworms," as the larvae like to live in sandy soil. The infection causes a red, intense itching eruption. The itching can become very painful and if scratched may allow a secondary bacterial infection to develop. The itching will not stop, even after the parasites are dead.--- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cutaneous_larva_migrans

Coccidioides sp. (Fungus)

Coccidioides immitis and C. posadasii are thermally dimorphic fungi found in soil particularly at warm and dry areas with low rain fall, high summer temperatures, and low altitude. The two species are morphologically identical but genetically and epidemiologically distinct [738, 739]. C. immitis is geographically limited to California's San Joaquin valley region, whereas C. posadasii is found in the desert southwest of the United States, Mexico, and South America. The two species appear to co-exist in the desert southwest and Mexico. C. immitis/posadasii specifically inhabits alkaline soil. It is isolated in rodent burrows at desert-like areas of southwest United States. It has no known teleomorph [531, 1295, 2202]. Coccidioides immitis/posadasii is a pathogenic fungus and is among the causative agents of true systemic (endemic) mycoses. It is endemic at southwest United States, Northern Mexico, and certain areas in Central and South America. Imported cases may be observed following travel to endemic areas

Computational gene

A computational gene [1][2][3] is a molecular automaton consisting of a structural part and a functional part; and its design is such that it might work in a cellular environment. The structural part is a naturally occurring gene, which is used as a skeleton to encode the input and the transitions of the automaton (Fig. 1A). The conserved features of a structural gene (e.g., DNA polymerase binding site, start and stop codons, and splicing sites) serve as constants of the computational gene, while the coding regions, the number of exons and introns, the position of start and stop codon, and the automata theoretical variables (symbols, states, and transitions) are the design parameters of the computational gene. The constants and the design parameters are linked by several logical and biochemical constraints (e.g., encoded automata theoretic variables must not be recognized as splicing junctions). The input of the automaton are molecular markers given by single stranded DNA (ssDNA) molecules. These markers are signalling aberrant (e.g., carcinogenic) molecular phenotype and turn on the self-assembly of the functional gene. If the input is accepted, the output encodes a double stranded DNA (dsDNA) molecule, a functional gene which should be successfully integrated into the cellular transcription and translation machinery producing a wild type protein or an anti-drug (Fig. 1B). Otherwise, a rejected input will assemble into a partially dsDNA molecule which cannot be translated. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Computational_Genes

Coxsackie virus

Coxsackie viruses may be divided into two groups. Type A causes hand, foot, and mouth disease and conjunctivitis, while type B causes pleurodynia. Both types sometimes cause meningitis, myocarditis, and pericarditis. There is no specific treatment for this disease.

Crown gall disease

Agrobacterium tumefaciens is the causal agent of crown gall disease (the formation of tumours) in over 140 species of dicot. It is a rod shaped, Gram negative soil bacterium (Smith et al., 1907). Symptoms are caused by the insertion of a small segment of DNA (known as the T-DNA, for 'transfer DNA') into the plant cell,[1] which is incorporated at a semi-random location into the plant genome. Agrobacterium tumefaciens (or A. tumefaciens) is an alphaproteobacterium of the family Rhizobiaceae, which includes the nitrogen fixing legume symbionts. Unlike the nitrogen fixing symbionts, tumor producing Agrobacterium are pathogenic and do not benefit the plant. The wide variety of plants affected by Agrobacterium makes it of great concern to the agriculture industry. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Crown_Gall

Crystal structure

n mineralogy and crystallography, a crystal structure is a unique arrangement of atoms or molecules in a crystalline liquid or solid. A crystal structure is composed of a motif, a set of atoms arranged in a particular way, and a lattice exhibiting long-range order and symmetry. Motifs are located upon the points of a lattice, which is an array of points repeating periodically in three dimensions. The points can be thought of as forming identical tiny boxes, called unit cells, that fill the space of the lattice. The lengths of the edges of a unit cell and the angles between them are called the lattice parameters. The symmetry properties of the crystal are embodied in its space group. A crystal's structure and symmetry play a role in determining many of its physical properties, such as cleavage, electronic band structure, and optical transparency.

Cutaneous larva migrans

Cyanobacteria

Cyanobacteria, also known as blue-green algae, blue-green bacteria or Cyanophyta, is a phylum of bacteria that obtain their energy through photosynthesis. The name "cyanobacteria" comes from the color of the bacteria (Greek: κυανός (kyanós) = blue). They are a significant component of the marine nitrogen cycle and an important primary producer in many areas of the ocean, but are also found in habitats other than the marine environment; in particular cyanobacteria are known to occur in both freshwater,[2] hypersaline inland lakes[3] and in arid areas where they are a major component of biological soil crusts.

cyclosporin

The mycotoxin cyclosporin used for transplantaiton cases cancer and atherosclerosis, complete with hyperlipidemia in ALL humans who have received it. Many others develop gout and other diseases.

cytoarchitecture

In biology, it refers to the arrangement of cells in a tissue, and in neuroscience it refers specifically to the arrangement of neuronal soma (biology) (cell bodies) in the brain. In common neuroanatomical parlance, the term "cytoarchitecture" (or "cytoarchitectonic") refers to the use of a common Nissl staining technique (named for Franz Nissl the neuroscientist and histologist who originated the technique), using common agents such as thionin, cresyl violet, or neutral red. These dyes intensely stain "Nissl bodies" (rough endoplasmic reticulum), which are abundant in neurons and reveal specific patterns of cytoarchitecture in the brain. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cytoarchitecture Also see Bruce Lipton's book, "The Biology of Belief."

Cytomegalovirus

Cytomegalovirus (from the Greek cyto-, "cell", and -megalo-, "large") is a herpes viral genus of the Herpesviruses group: in humans it is commonly known as HCMV or Human Herpesvirus 5 (HHV-5).[1] CMV belongs to the Betaherpesvirinae subfamily of Herpesviridae, which also includes Roseolovirus. Other herpesviruses fall into the subfamilies of Alphaherpesvirinae (including HSV 1 and 2 and varicella) or Gammaherpesvirinae (including Epstein-Barr virus).[1] All herpesviruses share a characteristic ability to remain latent within the body over long periods. HCMV infections are frequently associated with salivary glands, though they may be found throughout the body. HCMV infection can also be life threatening for patients who are immunocompromised (e.g. patients with HIV, organ transplant recipients, or neonates).[1] Other CMV viruses are found in several mammal species, but species isolated from animals differ from HCMV in terms of genomic structure, and have not been reported to cause human disease. HCMV is found throughout all geographic locations and socioeconomic groups, and infects between 50% and 80% of adults in the United States (40% worldwide[2]) as indicated by the presence of antibodies in much of the general population.[1] Seroprevalence is age-dependent: 58.9% of individuals aged 6 and older are infected with CMV while 90.8% of individuals aged 80 and older are positive for HCMV.[3] HCMV is also the virus most frequently transmitted to a developing fetus. HCMV infection is more widespread in developing countries and in communities with lower socioeconomic status and represents the most significant viral cause of birth defects in industrialized countries. CMV "seems to have a large impact on immune parameters in later life and may contribute to increased morbidity and eventual mortality."[4]

Cytomegalovirus

Cytomegalovirus is a member of the herpesvirus family. Other members of the herpesvirus family cause chickenpox, infectious mononucleosis, fever blisters, and genital herpes. These viruses all share the ability to remain alive, but dormant, in the body for life. A first infection with CMV usually causes no symptoms. The virus continues to live in the body silently without causing obvious damage or illness. It rarely becomes active for the first time or reactivates (causes illness again in the same person) unless the immune system weakens and is no longer able to hold the virus in check. Although usually not severe, a person with a weakened immune system can develop life-threatening CMV disease.

Cytopathic effect

Cytopathic effect (CPE) (or Cytopathogenic effect) refers to degenerative changes in cells, especially in tissue culture, associated with the multiplication of certain viruses. When in tissue culture, the spread of virus is restricted by an overlay of agar (or other suitable substance) and thus the cytopathic effect may lead to formation of viral plaque.[1] Thus identification of a viral infection can be made by examining the characteristic cytopathic effect produced on different cell sheets. This method however is relatively slow and not all viruses will grow on cell sheets.

DNA crossover molecules

DNA nanotechnology makes use of branched DNA structures to create DNA complexes with useful properties. DNA is normally a linear molecule, in that its axis is unbranched. However, DNA molecules containing junctions can also be made. For example, a four-arm junction can be made using four individual DNA strands which are complementary to each other in the correct pattern. Due to Watson-Crick base pairing, only portions of the strands which are complementary to each other will attach to each other to form duplex DNA. This four-arm junction is an immobile form of a Holliday junction.

DNA nanotechnology

DNA nanotechnology is a subfield of nanotechnology which seeks to use the unique molecular recognition properties of DNA and other nucleic acids to create novel, controllable structures out of DNA. The DNA is thus used as a structural material rather than as a carrier of genetic information, making it an example of bionanotechnology. This has possible applications in molecular self-assembly and in DNA computing. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/DNA_nanotechnology

Echovirus

Echoviruses (EVs) are RNA viruses of the genus Enterovirus and the family Picornaviridae. EVs cause a wide range of common and uncommon clinical presentations. These agents and other members of the Enterovirus group are among the leading causes of acute febrile illness in infants and young children; they are the most common cause of aseptic meningitis. EVs are small, measuring 24-30 nanometers (nm) under electron microscopy. They are composed of a naked protein capsid, constituting about 75% of the particle and enclosing a dense central core of single-stranded RNA. This RNA is approximately 7.5 kilobase (kb) long and contains an RNA replicase, viral-coded proteases, a single polyprotein that is responsible for forming structural polypeptides, and other proteins necessary for cellular replication. All EVs contain polypeptide chains (eg, virus protein 1 [VP1], virus protein 4 [VP4]). These structural proteins are important to determine host range and tropism, and they play a crucial role in delivering the RNA genome into the cytoplasm of new host cells. Although EVs originally were classified into 34 serotypes, EV-10 later was reclassified as a reovirus and EV-28 as rhinovirus type 1; EV-9 now is considered the same as coxsackievirus A23. At least 2 cellular receptors for EV have been identified: a subunit of the integrin molecule VLA-2 that binds types 1 and 8, and a complement regulatory protein (ie, a decay accelerating factor) that binds types 6, 7, 12, and 21.

Electrostatics

Electrostatics is the branch of science that deals with the phenomena arising from stationary or slow-moving electric charges. Since classical antiquity it was known that some materials such as amber attract light particles after rubbing. The Greek word for amber, ήλεκτρον (electron), was the source of the word 'electricity'. Electrostatic phenomena arise from the forces that electric charges exert on each other. Such forces are described by Coulomb's law. Even though electrostatically induced forces seem to be rather weak, the electrostatic force between e.g. an electron and a proton, that together make up a hydrogen atom, is about 40 orders of magnitude stronger than the gravitational force acting between them.

Electrostatics

Encephalopathy

Encephalopathy /ɛnˌsɛfəˈlɒpəθi/ literally means disorder or disease of the brain. [1] In modern usage, encephalopathy does not refer to a single disease, but rather to a syndrome of global brain dysfunction; this syndrome can be caused by many different illnesses.

Enterovirus

Enterovirus: A virus that enters the body through the gastrointestinal tract and thrives there, often moving on to attack the nervous system. The polio viruses are enteroviruses. Enteroviruses are small viruses that are made of ribonucleic acid (RNA) and protein. In addition to the three different polioviruses, there are 61 non-polio enteroviruses that can cause disease in humans: 29 Coxsackieviruses (23 Coxsackie A viruses and 6 Coxsackie B viruses), 28 echoviruses, and 4 other enteroviruses. Enteroviruses can be found in the respiratory secretions (e.g., saliva, sputum, or nasal mucus) and stool of an infected person. Other persons may become infected by direct contact with secretions from an infected person or by contact with contaminated surfaces or objects, such as a drinking glass or telephone. Infections caused by enteroviruses are most likely to occur during the summer and fall. Most people who are infected with an enterovirus have no disease at all. Infected persons who become ill usually develop either mild upper respiratory symptoms (a "cold"), a flu-like illness with fever and muscle aches, or an illness with rash.

Entomopathogenic nematode

Entomopathogenic nematodes are soil-inhabiting, lethal insect parasitoids that belong to the phylum Nematoda, commonly called roundworms. The term entomopathogenic comes from the Greek word entomon, meaning insect, and pathogenic, which means causing disease. Although many other parasitic nematodes cause diseases in plants, livestock, and humans, entomopathogenic nematodes, as their name implies, only infect insects. Entomopathogenic nematodes (EPNs) live inside the body of their host, and so they are designated endoparasitic. They infect many different types of soil insects, including the larval forms of butterflies, moths, beetles, and flies, as well as adult crickets and grasshoppers. EPNs have been found in all inhabited continents and a range of ecologically diverse habitats, from cultivated fields to deserts. The most commonly studied genera are those that are useful in the biological control of insect pests, the Steinernematidae and Heterorhabditidae (Gaugler 2006).

enzyme

enzymes are proteins that catalyze (i.e., increase the rates of) chemical reactions.[1][2] In enzymatic reactions, the molecules at the beginning of the process are called substrates, and the enzyme converts them into different molecules, called the products. Almost all processes in a biological cell need enzymes to occur at significant rates. Since enzymes are selective for their substrates and speed up only a few reactions from among many possibilities, the set of enzymes made in a cell determines which metabolic pathways occur in that cell. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Enzyme

epigenetics

In biology, the term epigenetics refers to changes in phenotype (appearance) or gene expression caused by mechanisms other than changes in the underlying DNA sequence, hence the name epi- (Greek: over; above) -genetics. These changes may remain through cell divisions for the remainder of the cell's life and may also last for multiple generations. However, there is no change in the underlying DNA sequence of the organism;[1] instead, non-genetic factors cause the organism's genes to behave (or "express themselves") differently. Also See Bruce Lipton's book "The Biology of Belief."

Epstein-Barr virus

According to the CDC: Epstein-Barr virus is a member of the herpesvirus family and one of the most common human viruses. The virus occurs worldwide, and most people become infected with EBV sometime during their lives. When infection with EBV occurs during adolescence or young adulthood, it causes infectious mononucleosis 35% to 50% of the time. EBV also establishes a lifelong dormant infection in some cells of the body's immune system. A late event in a very few carriers of this virus is the emergence of Burkitt's lymphoma and nasopharyngeal carcinoma, two rare cancers that are not normally found in the United States. EBV appears to play an important role in these malignancies, but is probably not the sole cause of disease. Most individuals exposed to people with infectious mononucleosis have previously been infected with EBV and are not at risk for infectious mononucleosis. In addition, transmission of EBV requires intimate contact with the saliva (found in the mouth) of an infected person.

Filarial Nematode Infections

Threadlike adult filarial worms reside in tissues. Gravid females produce live offspring (microfilariae) that circulate in blood or migrate through tissues. When ingested by a suitable bloodsucking insect (mosquitoes or flies), microfilariae develop into infective larvae that are inoculated or deposited in the skin of the next host during the insect bite. Only a few filarial species infect humans.

Flea

Flea is the common name for insects of the order Siphonaptera which are wingless insects whose mouthparts are adapted for piercing skin and sucking blood. Fleas are external parasites, living by hematophagy off the blood of mammals (including humans) and birds. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Flea During WW2 the Japanese Imperial Army created a division of biowarfare called Unite 731. In occupied Manchuria in 1936, Japanese scientists used scores of human subjects to test the lethality of various disease agents like anthrax, cholera, typhoid, and plague. as many as 10,000 people were killed in these experiments. Inactive military campaigns, several hundred thousand people, mostly Chinese civilians became victims to an "Insect vector." In octover of 1940, the Japanese dropped paper bags filled with plague-infested fleas over the cities of Ningbo and Quzhou in Zhejiang Province.

Fritz-Albert Popp

Fritz-Albert Popp (born 1938 in Frankfurt am Main, Germany) is a German researcher in biophysics. After studying experimental physics in Göttingen and Würzburg, Popp earned his PhD in theoretical physics at Mainz University and later became a professor at Marburg University. His research began with the confirmation of the existence of biophotons, which had earlier been studied by Terence Quickenden in Australia. International projects led to cooperation with scientists such as Walter Nagl, Ilya Prigogine and David Bohm. He became an Invited Member of the New York Academy of Sciences and an Invited Foreign Member of the Russian Academy of Natural Sciences (RANS). For a time, he worked at Princeton University. Popp was the founder of the International Institute of Biophysics in Neuss, Germany. http://www.21stcenturysciencetech.com/articles/mitogenetic.html http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz-Albert_Popp http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fritz-Albert_Popp

Fullerene

A fullerene is any molecule composed entirely of carbon, in the form of a hollow sphere, ellipsoid, or tube. Spherical fullerenes are also called buckyballs, and cylindrical ones are called carbon nanotubes or buckytubes. Fullerenes are similar in structure to graphite, which is composed of stacked graphene sheets of linked hexagonal rings; but they may also contain pentagonal (or sometimes heptagonal) rings. The first fullerene to be discovered, and the family's namesake, was buckminsterfullerene C60, made in 1985 by Robert Curl, Harold Kroto and Richard Smalley. The name was an homage to Richard Buckminster Fuller, whose geodesic domes it resembles. Fullerenes have since been found to occur (if rarely) in nature. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fullerene

Fullerene chemistry

Fullerene chemistry is a field of organic chemistry devoted to the chemical properties of fullerenes.[1][2][3] Research in this field is driven by the need to functionalize fullerenes and tune their properties. For example fullerene is notoriously insoluble and adding a suitable group can enhance solubility.[1] By adding a polymerizable group, a fullerene polymer can be obtained. Functionalized fullerenes are divided into two classes: exohedral with substituents outside the cage and endohedral fullerenes with trapped molecules inside the cage. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fullerene_chemistry

Fungicide

Fungicides are chemical compounds or biological organisms used to kill or inhibit fungi or fungal spores. Fungi can cause serious damage in agriculture, resulting in critical losses of yield, quality and profit. Fungicides are used both in agriculture and to fight fungal infections in animals. Chemicals used to control oomycetes, which are not fungi, are also referred to as fungicides as oomycetes use the same mechanisms as fungi to infect plants. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fungicide

Fusarium, Fusaria

Fusarium is a large genus of filamentous fungi widely distributed in soil and in association with plants. Most species are harmless saprobes and are relatively abundant members of the soil microbial community. Some species produce mycotoxins in cereal crops that can affect human and animal health if they enter the food chain. The main toxins produced by these Fusarium species are fumonisins and trichothecenes.The genus includes a number of economically important plant pathogenic species. Some species may cause a range of opportunistic infections in humans. In humans with normal immune systems, fusarial infections may occur in the nails (onychomycosis) and in the cornea (keratomycosis or mycotic keratitis).[2] In humans whose immune systems are weakened in a particular way (neutropenia, i.e., very low count of the white blood cell type called neutrophils), aggressive fusarial infections penetrating the entire body and bloodstream (disseminated infections) may be caused by members of the Fusarium solani complex, Fusarium oxysporum, Fusarium verticillioides, Fusarium proliferatum and rarely other fusarial species Fusarium graminearum commonly infects barley if there is rain late in the season. It is of economic impact to the malting and brewing industries as well as feed barley. Fusarium contamination in barley can result in head blight and in extreme contaminations the barley can appear pink.[1] The genome of this wheat and maize pathogen has been sequenced. Fusarium graminearum can also cause root rot and seedling blight. The total losses in the US of barley and wheat crops between 1991 and 1996 have been estimated at $3 billion. Biological warfare: Mass casualties occurred in the Soviet Union in the 1930s and 1940s when Fusarium-contaminated wheat flour was baked into bread, causing alimentary toxic aleukia with a 60% mortality rate. Symptoms began with abdominal pain, diarrhea, vomiting, and prostration. Within days fever, chills, myalgias and bone marrow depression with granulocytopenia and secondary sepsis. Further symptoms included pharyngeal or laryngeal ulceration and diffuse bleeding into the skin (petechiae and ecchymoses), melena, bloody diarrhea, hematuria, hematemesis, epistaxis, vaginal bleeding, Pancytopenia and gastrointestinal ulceration. Fusarium sporotrichoides contamination was found in affected grain in 1932, spurring research for medical purposes and for use in biological warfare. the United States has proposed the use of the agent as a mycoherbicide in drug eradication. In 2000, a proposal was passed to use the agent as part of Plan Colombia. In response to concerns that use of the fungus could be perceived as biological warfare, the Clinton Administration "waived" this use of Fusarium. A subsequent law passed in 2006 has mandated the testing of mycoherbicide agents - either Fusarium oxysporum or Pleospora papaveracea - in field trials in U.S. territory.[8] Use of Fusarium oxysporum for these tests has raised concerns because resistant coca from the previous outbreak has been widely cultivated, and the fungus has been implicated in the birth of 31 anencephalic children in the Rio Grande region of Texas in 1991[citation needed], the loss of palm trees in Los Angeles, and eye infections from contact lens solutions[9]. The alternative Pleospora papaveracea is less well-known; despite decades of study in the Soviet biowarfare lab in Tashkent, Uzbekistan, the relevant mycotoxins reportedly have not yet been isolated, named, or studied.

Genetic code

The genetic code is the set of rules by which information encoded in genetic material (DNA or RNA sequences) is translated into proteins (amino acid sequences) by living cells. A more precise term for the concept might be "genetic cipher"[1]. The code defines a mapping between tri-nucleotide sequences, called codons, and amino acids. A triplet codon in a nucleic acid sequence usually specifies a single amino acid (though in some cases the same codon triplet in different locations can code unambiguously for two different amino acids, the correct choice at each location being determined by context)[2]. Because the vast majority of genes are encoded with exactly the same code (see the RNA codon table), this particular code is often referred to as the canonical or standard genetic code, or simply the genetic code, though in fact there are many variant codes. Thus the canonical genetic code is not universal. For example, in humans, protein synthesis in mitochondria relies on a genetic code that varies from the canonical code. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Codons

Gulf War syndrome

Gulf War syndrome (GWS) or Gulf War illness (GWI) is an illness reported by combat veterans of the 1991 Persian Gulf War typified by a range of medically unexplained symptoms.[1][2] Symptoms attributed to this syndrome have been wide-ranging and include acute and chronic ailments. These include including fatigue, loss of muscle control, headaches, dizziness and loss of balance, memory problems, muscle and joint pain, indigestion, skin problems. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gulf_War_syndrome

Heat Shock Protein

Heat shock proteins (HSP) are a class of functionally related proteins whose expression is increased when cells are exposed to elevated temperatures or other stress.[1] This increase in expression is transcriptionally regulated. The dramatic upregulation of the heat shock proteins is a key part of the heat shock response and is induced primarily by heat shock factor (HSF).[2] HSPs are found in virtually all living organisms, from bacteria to humans. Heat-shock proteins are named according to their molecular weight. For example, Hsp60, Hsp70 and Hsp90 (the most widely-studied HSPs) refer to families of heat shock proteins on the order of 60, 70 and 90 kilodaltons in size, respectively.[3] The small 8 kilodalton protein ubiquitin, which marks proteins for degradation, also has features of a heat shock protein.[4] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heat_shock_protein

Heme

A heme (American English) or haem (British English) is a prosthetic group that consists of an iron atom contained in the center of a large heterocyclic organic ring called a porphyrin. Not all porphyrins contain iron, but a substantial fraction of porphyrin-containing metalloproteins have heme as their prosthetic group; these are known as hemoproteins. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heme

Hemeprotein

A hemeprotein (or hemoprotein or haemoprotein), or heme protein, is a metalloprotein containing a heme prosthetic group, either covalently or noncovalently bound to the protein itself. The iron in the heme is capable of undergoing oxidation and reduction (usually to +2 and +3, though stabilized ferryl [Fe+4] compounds are well known in the peroxidases). Hemoproteins have diverse biological functions including the transportation of diatomic gases, chemical catalysis, diatomic gas detection, and electron transfer. The heme iron serves as a source or sink of electrons during electron transfer or redox chemistry. In peroxidase reactions, the porphyrin molecule also serves as an electron source. In the transportation or detection of diatomic gases, the gas binds to the heme iron. During the detection of diatomic gases, the binding of the gas ligand to the heme iron induces conformational changes in the surrounding protein. It has been speculated that the original evolutionary function of hemoproteins was electron transfer in primitive sulfur-based photosynthesis pathways in ancestral cyanobacteria before the appearance of molecular oxygen. [1] Hemoproteins achieve their remarkable functional diversity by modifying the environment of the heme macrocycle within the protein matrix. For example, the ability of hemoglobin to effectively deliver oxygen to tissues is due to specific amino acid residues located near the heme molecule. Hemoglobin binds oxygen in the pulmonary vasculature, where the pH is high and the pCO2 is low, and releases it in the tissues, where the situations are reversed. This phenomenon is known as the Bohr effect. The molecular mechanism behind this effect is the steric organization of the globin chain; a histidine residue, located adjacent to the heme group, becomes positively charged under acid circumstances, sterically releasing oxygen from the heme group. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hemoproteins

Hepatitis A B C

Hepatitis (plural hepatitides) implies injury to the liver characterized by the presence of inflammatory cells in the tissue of the organ. A group of viruses known as the hepatitis viruses cause most cases of liver damage worldwide. Hepatitis can also be due to toxins (notably alcohol), other infections or from autoimmune process. It may run a subclinical course when the affected person may not feel ill. The patient becomes unwell and symptomatic when the disease impairs liver functions that include, among other things, removal of harmful substances, regulation of blood composition, and production of bile to help digestion.

Heterorhabditis

Heterorhabditis is a genus of nematodes belonging to the order Rhabditida. All species of this genus are obligate parasites of insects, and some are used as biological control agents for the control of pest insects. [edit] Uses The nematode species Heterorhabditis indica has been used effectively[1] against the red weevil, Rhinotia haemoptera, an insect pest that can literally destroy whole groves and plantations of coconut and migrate to date palms and other palms, causing much economical damage to farmers as well as landscapers. Efforts are made to mass breed this nematode and apply it to affected plantations. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Heterorhabditis

Heterorhabditis bacteriophora

Histoplasma capsulatum

H. capsulatum exhibits thermal dimorphism by growing in living tissue or in culture at 37C as a budding yeast-like fungus or in soil or culture at temperatures below 30C as a mould. On Sabouraud's dextrose agar at 25C, colonies are slow growing, white or buff-brown, suede-like to cottony with a pale yellow-brown reverse. Other colony types are glabrous or verrucose, and a red pigmented strain has been noted. Microscopic morphology shows the presence of characteristic large (8-14 um in diameter), rounded, single-celled, tuberculate macroconidia formed on short, hyaline, undifferentiated conidiophores. Microconidia, if present, are small (2-4 um in diameter), round to pyriform and borne on short branches or directly on the sides of the hyphae. Histoplasmosis is an intracellular mycotic infection of the reticuloendothelial system caused by the inhalation of conidia from the fungus Histoplasma capsulatum. Approximately 95% of cases of histoplasmosis are inapparent, subclinical or benign. Five percent of the cases have chronic progressive lung disease, chronic cutaneous or systemic disease or an acute fulminating fatal systemic disease. All stages of this disease may mimic tuberculosis. Histoplasma capsulatum has a world wide distribution, however, the Mississippi-Ohio River Valley in the U.S.A. is recognized as a major endemic region. Environmental isolations of the fungus have been made from soil enriched with excreta from chicken, starlings and bats. WARNING: RG-3 Organism. Cultures of H. capsulatum represent a severe biohazard to laboratory personnel and must be handled with extreme caution in an appropriate pathogen handling cabinet.

Influenza A (H1N1)

Influenza A (H1N1) virus is a subtype of influenzavirus A and the most common cause of influenza (flu) in humans. Some strains of H1N1 are endemic in humans and cause a small fraction of all influenza-like illness and a large fraction of all seasonal influenza. H1N1 strains caused roughly half of all human flu infections in 2006.[1] Other strains of H1N1 are endemic in pigs (swine influenza) and in birds (avian influenza).

Iraqi sand fly

The bite of an Iraqi sand fly can debilitate a Marine, sailor or a whole unit, but with proper protection the parasitic infection it causes, leishmaniasis, can be prevented, according to Petty Officer 1st Class David A. Carroll, the preventive medicine chief with I Marine Expeditionary Force. I Marine Expeditionary Force Headquarters Group’s preventive medicine department has been spraying uniforms, buildings and certain open areas around the base with pesticides like permethrin, Scurg and Dmand. The proper prevention of leishmaniasis is vital since there is no cure, and it is common for the disease to take three to six months before symptoms appear. Leishmaniasis manifests in two ways, the most common being cutaneous, or skin related, and visceral or internal. The latter can be deadly.

Josef Mengele

Dr. Josef Mengele (16 March 1911 – 7 February 1979) was a German SS officer and a physician in the Nazi concentration camp Auschwitz-Birkenau. He earned doctorates in anthropology from Munich University and in medicine from Frankfurt University[ambiguous]. He gained notoriety for being one of the SS physicians who supervised the selection of arriving transports of prisoners, determining who was to be killed and who was to become a forced laborer, and for performing human experiments on camp inmates, amongst whom Mengele was known as the Angel of Death or Beautiful Devil. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Josef_Mengele

Keratin

Keratins are a family of fibrous structural proteins; tough and insoluble, they form the hard but un-mineralized structures found in reptiles, birds, amphibians, and mammals. They are rivaled as biological materials in toughness only by chitin.

Lattice Parameters

The Lattice Constant [or lattice parameter] refers to the constant distance between unit cells in a crystal lattice. Lattices in three dimensions generally have three lattice constants, referred to as a, b, and c. However, in the special case of cubic crystal structures, all of the constants are equal and we only refer to a. Similarly, in hexagonal crystal structures, the a and b constants are equal, and we only refer to the a and c constants. A group of lattice constants could be referred to as lattice parameters. However, the full set of lattice parameters consist of the three lattice constants and the three angles between them. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lattice_constant

Lecithin

Lecithin is any group of yellow-brownish fatty substances occurring in animal and plant tissues, and in egg yolk, composed of phosphoric acid, choline, fatty acids, glycerol, glycolipids, triglycerides, and phospholipids (e.g., phosphatidylcholine, phosphatidylethanolamine, and phosphatidylinositol). However, lecithin is sometimes used as a synonym for pure phosphatidylcholine, a phospholipid that is the major component of its phosphatide fraction. It may be isolated either from egg yolk (in Greek lekithos—λέκιθος) or from soy beans, from which it is extracted chemically (using hexane) or mechanically. It has low solubility in water. In aqueous solution its phospholipids can form either liposomes, bilayer sheets, micelles, or lamellar structures, depending on hydration and temperature. This results in a type of surfactant that is usually classified as amphipathic. Lecithin is sold as a food supplement and for medical uses. In cooking, it is sometimes used as an emulsifier. Non-soy sources: Raw eggs and egg yolks. http://www.austradeinc.com/non-soy-lecithin-powder.html

Leishmaniasis

Leishmaniasis is a disease caused by protozoan parasites that belong to the genus Leishmania and is transmitted by the bite of certain species of sand fly (subfamily Phlebotominae). Two genera transmit Leishmania to humans: Lutzomyia in the New World and Phlebotomus in the Old World.[1] Most forms of the disease are transmissible only from animals (zoonosis), but some can be spread between humans. Human infection is caused by about 21 of 30 species that infect mammals. These include the L. donovani complex with three species (L. donovani, L. infantum, and L. chagasi); the L. mexicana complex with 3 main species (L. mexicana, L. amazonensis, and L. venezuelensis); L. tropica; L. major; L. aethiopica; and the subgenus Viannia with four main species (L. (V.) braziliensis, L. (V.) guyanensis, L. (V.) panamensis, and L. (V.) peruviana). The different species are morphologically indistinguishable, but they can be differentiated by isoenzyme analysis, DNA sequence analysis, or monoclonal antibodies. Cutaneous leishmaniasis is the most common form of leishmaniasis. Visceral leishmaniasis is a severe form in which the parasites have migrated to the vital organs. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Leishmaniasis http://www.freerepublic.com/focus/news/1132776/posts

Lipophilicity

Lipophilicity, (Gr. fat-liking), refers to the ability of a chemical compound to dissolve in fats, oils, lipids, and non-polar solvents such as hexane or toluene.[1] These non-polar solvents are themselves lipophilic — the axiom that like dissolves like generally holds true. Thus lipophilic substances tend to dissolve in other lipophilic substances, while hydrophilic (water-loving) substances tend to dissolve in water and other hydrophilic substances. Lipophilicity, hydrophobicity, and non-polarity can describe the same tendency towards participation in the London dispersion force as the terms are often used interchangeably. However, the terms "lipophilic" and "hydrophobic" are not synonymous, as can be seen with silicones and fluorocarbons, which are hydrophobic but not lipophilic. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipophilicity

Lipoprotein

A lipoprotein is a biochemical assembly that contains both proteins and lipids. The lipids or their derivatives may be covalently or non-covalently bound to the proteins. Many enzymes, transporters, structural proteins, antigens, adhesins and toxins are lipoproteins. Examples include the high density (HDL) and low density (LDL) lipoproteins which enable fats to be carried in the blood stream, the transmembrane proteins of the mitochondrion and the chloroplast, and bacterial lipoproteins [1]. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lipoprotein

Löffler's syndrome

Löffler's syndrome or Loeffler's syndrome is a disease in which a certain type of white blood cell called an eosinophil accumulates in the lung in response to a parasitic infection. (often CLM or cutaneous larva migrans caused by strongyloides or strongyloidiasis ). It was first described in 1932 by Wilhelm Löffler[1] [2][3] in cases of eosinophilic pneumonia caused by the parasites Ascaris lumbricoides,[4] Strongyloides stercoralis and the hookworms Ancylostoma duodenale and Necator americanus. Although Löffler only described eosinophilic pneumonia in the context of infection, many authors give the term "Löffler's syndrome" to any form of acute onset pulmonary eosinophilia no matter what the underlying cause. Cardiac damage caused by the damaging effects of eosinophil granule proteins (ex. major basic protein) is known as Loeffler endocarditis and can be caused by idiopathic eosinophilia or eosinophilia in response to parasitic infection.

Mae-Wan Ho

Mae-Wan Ho (b. 12 November 1941, Hong Kong; UK citizen) is a geneticist known for her critical views on genetic engineering.

Mermithidae

Mermithidae is a family of nematode worms that are endoparasites in arthropods. As early as 1877, Mermithidae was listed as one of nine subdivisions of the Nematoidea.[2] Mermithidae are confusable with the horsehair worms of the phylum Nematomorpha that have a similar life history and appearance. Mermithids are obligate parasites, mainly of arthropods. Most are known from insects, but some are recorded from spiders, scorpions and crustaceans. A few are known to parasitize earthworms, leeches and molluscs,[3] and a specimen is known from a spider preserved in forty million-year old Baltic amber.[4] At least 25 species are known to parasitize mosquito larvae, making them of considerable interest in biological control. They are known to have been utilized in GMO bio-pesticide use. Mermithids are wire-like and have a smooth cuticle with layers of spiral fibres. The digestive tract is similar to that of free-living nematodes only in the young larvae prior to their parasitic life; in the parasitic stages the oesophagus is disconnected from the mid-intestine, and females lack an anus. The female genital opening is at the midbody, while the male opening is at the tip and visible as one or two spicules. The eggs are laid either in water or on land, and the newly hatched larvae are free-living, as are the adults that also emerge from the parasites to lay eggs.[6] The taxonomy of the group has been confused due to poor specimen collection as well as very limited morphological characteristics, and most are discovered by entomologists rather than nematologists. Even the best-studied species, Romanomermis culicivorax, has an unclear taxonomic status. --- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mermithidae

Micro Raman technology

Although Raman scattering is currently undergoing a renaissance, it thus far has remained separate and removed from the proliferation of insights that the scanned probe microscopies (SPM) can give. In general, investigating a sample with scanned probe microscopies requires removing the sample from the micro-Raman spectrometer. This means that the exact region that was being interrogated by Raman cannot be found again for the chosen SPM imaging technique. Direct correlation of Raman scattering with an SPM technique has been a dream. http://www.nanonics.co.il/combined-microraman-and-nsom-spm-system.html

Microbiology

Microbiology (from Greek μῑκρος, mīkros, "small"; βίος, bios, "life"; and -λογία, -logia) is the study of microorganisms, which are unicellular or cell-cluster microscopic organisms.[1] This includes eukaryotes such as fungi and protists, and prokaryotes. Viruses, though not strictly classed as living organisms, are also studied.[2] In short; microbiology refers to the study of life and organisms that are too small to be seen with the naked eye. Microbiology typically includes the study of the immune system, or Immunology. Generally, immune systems interact with pathogenic microbes; these two disciplines often intersect which is why many colleges offer a paired degree such as "Microbiology and Immunology". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Microbiology

Microorganisms in Clouds of Desert Dust

Billions of tons of desert dust move through the atmosphere each year. The primary source regions, which include the Sahara and Sahel regions of North Africa and the Gobi and Takla Makan regions of Asia, are capable of dispersing significant quantities of desert dust across the traditionally viewed oceanic barriers. While a considerable amount of research by scientists has addressed atmospheric pathways and aerosol chemistry, very few studies to determine the numbers and types of microorganisms transported within these desert dust clouds and the roles that they may play in human health have been conducted. This review is a summary of the current state of knowledge of desert dust microbiology and the health impact that desert dust and its microbial constituents may have in downwind environments both close to and far from their sources. http://cmr.asm.org/cgi/content/full/20/3/459#Viruses

Mitochondria

In cell biology, a mitochondrion (plural mitochondria) is a membrane-enclosed organelle found in most eukaryotic cells.[1] These organelles range from 0.5–10 micrometers (μm) in diameter. Mitochondria are sometimes described as "cellular power plants" because they generate most of the cell's supply of adenosine triphosphate (ATP), used as a source of the chemical energy.[2] In addition to supplying cellular energy, mitochondria are involved in a range of other processes, such as signaling, cellular differentiation, cell death, as well as the control of the cell cycle and cell growth.[

Moieties

In organic chemistry, functional groups are specific groups of atoms within molecules that are responsible for the characteristic chemical reactions of those molecules. The same functional group will undergo the same or similar chemical reaction(s) regardless of the size of the molecule it is a part of.[1][2] However, its relative reactivity can be modified by nearby functional groups. The word moiety is often used synonymously to "functional group," but, according to the IUPAC definition,[3] a moiety is a part of a molecule that may include functional groups as substructures. For example, an ester is divided into an alcohol and an acyl moiety, but has an ester functional group. Also, it may be divided into carboxylate and alkyl moieties. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Moiety_%28chemistry%29

Molecular biology

Molecular biology is the study of biology at a molecular level. The field overlaps with other areas of biology and chemistry, particularly genetics and biochemistry. Molecular biology chiefly concerns itself with understanding the interactions between the various systems of a cell, including the interactions between DNA, RNA and protein biosynthesis as well as learning how these interactions are regulated. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_biology

Molecular machine

A molecular machine, or nanomachine,[1] has been defined as a discrete number of molecular components that perform mechanical-like movements (output) in response to specific stimuli (input).[2] It is often applied more generally to molecules that simply mimic functions at the macroscopic level. The term is also common in nanotechnology, and a number of highly complex molecular machines have been proposed towards the goal of constructing a molecular assembler. Molecular machines can be divided into two broad categories: synthetic and biological. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_machine

Molecular Manufacturing

A range of existing and hypothetical techniques and processes for assembling supra-molecular constructions and larger products from the ground up. Molecular manufacturing is the prospect of designing and building macro-scale objects atom-by-atom .

Molecular self-assembly

Molecular self-assembly is the process by which molecules adopt a defined arrangement without guidance or management from an outside source. There are two types of self-assembly, intramolecular self-assembly and intermolecular self-assembly. Most often the term molecular self-assembly refers to intermolecular self-assembly, while the intramolecular analog is more commonly called folding. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_self-assembly

Mucositis

Mucositis is the painful inflammation and ulceration of the mucous membranes lining the digestive tract, usually as an adverse effect of chemotherapy and radiotherapy treatment for cancer.[1] Mucositis can occur anywhere along the gastrointestinal (GI) tract, but oral mucositis refers to the particular inflammation and ulceration that occurs in the mouth. Oral mucositis is a common and often debilitating complication of cancer treatment.[2] Oral and gastrointestinal (GI) mucositis can affect up to 100% of patients undergoing high-dose chemotherapy and hematopoietic stem cell transplantation (HSCT), 80% of patients with malignancies of the head and neck receiving radiotherapy, and a wide range of patients receiving chemotherapy. Alimentary tract mucositis increases mortality and morbidity and contributes to rising health care costs.[3] For most cancer treatment, about 5-15% of patients get mucositis. However, with 5-fluorouracil (5-FU), up to 40% get mucositis, and 10-15% get grade 3-4 oral mucositis.[4] Irinotecan is associated with severe GI mucositis in over 20% of patients. 75-85% of bone marrow transplantation recipients experience mucositis, of which oral mucositis is the most common and most debilitating, especially when melphalan is used. In grade 3 oral mucositis, the patient is unable to eat solid food, and in grade 4, the patient is unable to consume liquids as well.[5] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mucositis

Mycoplasma

Mycoplasma is a genus of bacteria which lack a cell wall.[1] Without a cell wall, they are unaffected by many common antibiotics such as penicillin or other beta-lactam antibiotics that target cell wall synthesis. They can be parasitic or saprotrophic. Several species are pathogenic in humans, including M. pneumoniae, which is an important cause of atypical pneumonia and other respiratory disorders, and M. genitalium, which is believed to be involved in pelvic inflammatory diseases. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycoplasma

Mycotoxin

A mycotoxin (from Greek μύκης (mykes, mukos) "fungus" and Latin (toxicum) "poison") is a toxic secondary metabolite produced by an organism of the fungus kingdom, including mushrooms, molds, and yeasts.[1][2] The term 'mycotoxin' is usually reserved for the toxic chemical products produced by fungi that readily colonize crops.[1] Most fungi are aerobic (use oxygen) and are found almost everywhere in extremely small quantities due to the minute size of their spores. They consume organic matter wherever humidity and temperature are sufficient. One mold species may produce many different mycotoxins and/or the same mycotoxin as another species.[3] Where conditions are right, fungi proliferate into colonies and mycotoxin levels become high. The reason for the production of mycotoxins is not yet known; they are neither necessary for growth nor the development of the fungi.[4] The production of toxins depends on the surrounding intrinsic and extrinsic environments and the toxins vary greatly in their severity, depending on the organism infected and its susceptibility, metabolism, and defense mechanisms.[5] Some of the health effects found in animals and humans include death, identifiable diseases or health problems, weakened immune systems without specificity to a toxin, and as allergens or irritants. Some mycotoxins are harmful to other micro-organisms such as other fungi or even bacteria; penicillin is one example.[6] Mycotoxins can appear in the food chain as a result of fungal infection of crops, either by being eaten directly by humans, or by being used as livestock feed. Mycotoxins greatly resist decomposition or being broken down in digestion, so they remain in the food chain in meat and dairy products. Even temperature treatments, such as cooking and freezing, do not destroy mycotoxins. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Mycotoxins

Nano Technology

Any engineered materials, structures and systems that operate at a scale of 100 nanometres or less (One nanometre is one billionth of a metre). Nanotechnology can also be defined as a set of techniques that operate at what I refer to as the nano-atomic level of engagement with nature, such that they enable the direct manipulation and reconstruction of the world at the level of atoms and molecules.

Nano-Atomic Precision Ideology

Absolute precision control of atoms, and the precise and efficient manufacture of products atom-by-atom — the promise of total control over nature and matter at the molecular level — represents the ideal, the dream of nanotechnology. It also underpins an ideology of nano-atomic precision, whereby the degree of precision and control over nature at the nano-atomic level — as well as the control over the products of nanotechnology — are exaggerated, as are the supposed benefits that will flow from this precision. At the same time, this ideology tends to mask or downplay concerns over the imprecision, unpredictability and uncertainties surrounding the techniques and products of nanotechnology. This can, (and DO) get "out of the lab", bio-nanotech pesticides tested on live crops and fields DO get washed into the rivers, lakes and streams and eventually find their way into humans. This is the wild card of unpredictibility, scientists often do not know if the results are dangerous, until they are.

Nano-biotechnology

The use of nanotechnology to manipulate living organisms and to enable the merging of biological and non-biological materials. This includes the use of nanotechnology to facilitate genetic engineering breeding programs, the incorporation of synthetic materials into biological organisms, and ultimately the creation of new life forms. The underlying aim is to find new ways of re-engineering living organisms for specific pesticides, products and industrial uses.

Nano-Pollution

Nanotechnology introduces an entire new class of environmental threats into the world, including the spectre of nanopollution. Nanostructured particles and devices may constitute a whole new class of non-biodegradable pollutants. Like chemical pollution, the concerns over nano-pollution are based on the persistence, bioaccumulation and toxicity of nanoparticles and products. Nanoparticles and nanostructures could be released into the air, soil and water in the form of environmental remediation products, through waste streams from factories and research laboratories, as fixed or unfixed nanoparticles in composite products and as components of military weapons.The size and toxicity of nanoparticles poses a threat to animals, fish and micro-organisms. Nanoparticles may also travel through soils and be taken up by plants, thereby entering the food chains of humans and animals. Because of their size and bonding properties, nanomaterials may absorb and provide an avenue for transport of contaminants. One of the inherent dangers associated with nano-biotechnologically modified organisms — such as modified viruses — is not only that they reproduce, but that they may also mutate and evolve in unpredictable and uncontrollable ways.

Nanoarchaeum equitans

Nanoarchaeum equitans is a species of tiny microbe, an archaea discovered in 2002 in a hydrothermal vent off the coast of Iceland by Karl Stetter. Since it grows in temperatures approaching boiling, it is considered to be a thermophile. Nanoarchaeum appears to be an obligatory symbiont on the archaeon Ignicoccus; (archaea) it must be in contact with the host organism to survive. Its cells are only 400 nm in diameter, making it the next smallest known living organism, excepting possibly nanobacteria and nanobes, whose status as living organisms are controversial. Its genome is only 490,885 nucleotides long; the smallest non-viral genome ever sequenced next to C. ruddii's in 2006. Genetically, Nanoarchaeum is peculiar in that its 16S RNA sequence is undetectable by the most common methods. Initial examination of single-stranded ribosomal RNA indicated that the organism most likely belonged to the Archaea domain. However, its difference from the existing phyla, Euryarchaeota and Crenarchaeota, was as great as the difference between the phyla. Therefore, it was given its own phylum, called Nanoarchaeota. However, another group (see References) compared all of the open reading frames to the other Archaea. They argue that the initial sample, ribosomal RNA only, was biased and Nanoarchaeum actually belongs to the Euryarchaeota phylum.[1] The sequencing of the Nanoarchaeum genome has revealed a wealth of information about the organism's biology. The genes for several vital metabolic pathways appear to be missing. Nanoarchaeum cannot synthesize most nucleotides, amino acids, lipids, and cofactors. The cell most likely obtains these biomolecules from Ignicoccus. However, unlike many parasitic microbes, Nanoarchaeum has many DNA repair enzymes, as well as everything necessary to carry out DNA replication, transcription, and translation. This may explain why the genome lacks the large stretches of non-coding DNA characteristic of other parasites. The genome and proteome composition of N. equitans are marked with the signatures of dual adaptation â�� one to high temperature and the other to obligatory parasitism (or symbiosis).

Nanobacteria

Nanobacteria are a proposed class of living organisms; specifically cell-walled microorganisms with a size much smaller than the generally accepted lower limit size for life (about 200 nanometres for bacteria). The term calcifying nanoparticles (CNPs) has been used as a conservative name regarding their possible status as a life form. The most recent research tends to agree that nanobacteria are an extant, and likely self-propagating phenomenon, In medicine, they have been implicated in the formation of both kidney stones and arterial plaque. The February 2008 PLoS Pathogens article focused on the comprehensive characterization of nanobacteria. The results of the article ruled out the existence of nanobacteria as living entities. However, the study revealed that they are a unique self-propagating entity similar to prions - corresponding to self-propagating mineral-fetuin complexes.[13]

Nanobiotechnology

Nanobiotechnology is the branch of nanotechnology with biological and biochemical applications or uses. Nanobiotechnology often studies existing elements of nature in order to fabricate new devices [1]. The term bionanotechnology is often used interchangeably with nanobiotechnology, though a distinction is sometimes drawn between the two. If the two are distinguished, nanobiotechnology usually refers to the use of nanotechnology to further the goals of biotechnology, while bionanotechnology might refer to any overlap between biology and nanotechnology, including the use of biomolecules as part of or as an inspiration for nanotechnological devices. Nanobiotechnology is that branch of one,which deals with the study and application of biological and biochemical activities from elements of nature to fabricate new devices like biosensors. Nanobiotechnology is often used to describe the overlapping multidisciplinary activities associated with biosensors particularly where photonics, chemistry, biology, biophysics nanomedicine and engineering converge. Measurement in biology using for example, waveguide techniques such as dual polarisation interferometry are another example. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanobiotechnology

Nanofabrication

Nanomaterials

Nanomaterials is a field which takes a materials science-based approach to nanotechnology. It studies materials with morphological features on the nanoscale, and especially those which have special properties stemming from their nanoscale dimensions. Nanoscale is usually defined as smaller than a one tenth of a micrometer in at least one dimension, though this term is sometimes also used for materials smaller than one micrometer. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanomaterials

Nanoparticle Toxicity

There are major concerns regarding the toxicity of nanoparticles. The very size and shape of nanoparticles, their high reactivity and the new properties they contain are the source of a range of possible health and environmental hazards. These characteristics of nanoparticles make them potentially hazardous to humans in numerous ways, particularly as nanoparticles may have many pathways for entering the body — for instance, through inhalation, digestion and skin exposure. They may be able to penetrate the skin, pass into the bloodstream, penetrate cells, by-pass immune responses, lodge in the lungs and cross the blood-brain barrier. The small number of health and safety studies undertaken to date — largely in the form of animal experimentation studies –— have already demonstrated a range of threats that nanoparticles pose to human health.

Nanorobotics

Nanorobotics is the technology of creating machines or robots at or close to the microscopic scale of a nanometer (10−9 meters). More specifically, nanorobotics refers to the still largely hypothetical nanotechnology engineering discipline of designing and building nanorobots, devices ranging in size from 0.1-10 micrometers and constructed of nanoscale or molecular components. As no artificial non-biological nanorobots have yet been created, they remain a hypothetical concept. The names nanobots, nanoids, nanites or nanomites have also been used to describe these hypothetical devices. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanorobotics

Nanotechnology

Nanotechnology, shortened to "nanotech", is the study of the controlling of matter on an atomic and molecular scale. Generally nanotechnology deals with structures of the size 100 nanometers or smaller in at least one dimension, and involves developing materials or devices within that size. Nanotechnology is very diverse, ranging from extensions of conventional device physics to completely new approaches based upon molecular self-assembly, from developing new materials with dimensions on the nanoscale to investigating whether we can directly control matter on the atomic scale. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nanotechnology

nematomorpha

Nematomorpha (sometimes called Gordiacea, and commonly known as Horsehair worms or Gordian worms) are a phylum of parasitic animals that are morphologically and ecologically similar to nematode worms, hence the name. They range in size from 1 cm to 1 meter long, and 1 to 3 millimetres in diameter. Horsehair worms can be discovered in damp areas such as watering troughs, streams, puddles, and cisterns. The adult worms are free living, but the larvae are parasitic on beetles, cockroaches, Orthoptera and crustaceans[1]. About 326 species are known and a conservative estimate suggests that there may be about 2000 species worldwide.[2] The name "Gordian" stems from the legendary Gordian knot. This relates to the fact that nematomorpha often tie themselves in knots.[3] Nematomorphs can be confused with nematodes, particularly Mermithid worms. Unlike Nematomorphs, Mermithids do not have a terminal cloaca. Male mermithids have one or two spicules just before the end apart from having a thinner, smoother cuticle, without areoles and a paler brown colour.[7] The phylum is placed along with the Ecdysozoa clade of moulting organisms that include the Arthropoda. Fossilized worms have been reported from Early Cretaceous Burmese amber dated to 100–110 million years apart from a fossil from the Mesozoic.[8] Relationships within the phylum are still somewhat unclear, but two classes are recognised: Class Nectonematoida: Marine, planktonic, with a double row of natotory setae along each side of the body; with dorsal and ventral longitudinal epidermal cords, blastocoelom spacious and fluid filled; gonads single; larvae parasitise decapod crustaceans --- Class Gordioidea: Freshwater and semiterrestrial; lack lateral rows of setae; with a single, ventral epidermal cord; blastocoelom filled with mesenchyme in young animals but becomes spacious in older individuals; larvae primarily parasitise Orthoptera--- Nematomorphs can be confused with nematodes, particularly Mermithid worms. Unlike Nematomorphs, Mermithids do not have a terminal cloaca. Male mermithids have one or two spicules just before the end apart from having a thinner, smoother cuticle, without areoles and a paler brown colour.[7]--- http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nematomorpha

Nucleic acid

A nucleic acid is a macromolecule composed of chains of monomeric nucleotides. In biochemistry these molecules carry genetic information or form structures within cells. The most common nucleic acids are deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Nucleic acids are universal in living things, as they are found in all cells and viruses. Nucleic acids were first discovered by Friedrich Miescher in 1871. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Nucleic_acid Artificial nucleic acids include peptide nucleic acid (PNA), Morpholino and locked nucleic acid (LNA), as well as glycol nucleic acid (GNA) and threose nucleic acid (TNA). Each of these is distinguished from naturally-occurring DNA or RNA by changes to the backbone of the molecule.

Occam's razor

Occam's razor (or Ockham's razor[1]), entia non sunt multiplicanda praeter necessitatem, is the principle that "entities must not be multiplied beyond necessity" and the conclusion thereof, that the simplest explanation or strategy tends to be the best one. The principle is attributed to 14th-century English logician, theologian and Franciscan friar, William of Ockham. Occam's razor may be alternatively phrased as pluralitas non est ponenda sine necessitate ("plurality should not be posited without necessity").[2] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Occams_razor

Ochratoxin

Ochratoxin is primarily produced by species of Penicillim and Aspergillus. Ochratoxin is damaging to the kidneys and liver and is also a suspected carcinogen. There is also evidence that it impairs the immune system.

Oligonucleotides

An oligonucleotide is a short nucleic acid polymer, typically with twenty or fewer bases. Although they can be formed by bond cleavage of longer segments, they are now more commonly synthesized by polymerizing individual nucleotide precursors. Automated synthesizers allow the synthesis of oligonucleotides up to 160 to 200 bases. The length of the oligonucleotide is usually denoted by "mer" (from Greek meros, "part"). For example, a fragment of 25 bases would be called a 25-mer. Because oligonucleotides readily bind to their respective complementary nucleotide, they are often used as probes for detecting DNA or RNA. Examples of procedures that use oligonucleotides include DNA microarrays, Southern blots, ASO analysis, fluorescent in situ hybridization (FISH), and the synthesis of artificial genes. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oligonucleotides Oligonucleotides composed of DNA (oligodeoxyribonucleotides) are often used in the polymerase chain reaction, a procedure that can greatly amplify almost any small piece of DNA. There, the oligonucleotide is referred to as a primer, allowing DNA polymerase to extend the oligonucleotide and replicate the complementary strand.

Oomycete

Oömycota (pronounced /ˌoʊ ə maɪˈkoʊ tə/) or oömycetes (pronounced /ˌoʊ əˈmaɪ sit is/), also known as water molds (or water moulds: see spelling differences), form a distinct phylogenetic lineage of fungus-like eukaryotic microorganisms. They are filamentous microscopic, absorptive organisms that reproduce both sexually and asexually. Oomycetes occupy both saprophytic and pathogenic lifestyles – and include some of the most notorious pathogens of plants, causing devastating diseases such as Late Blight of Potato and Sudden Oak Death. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Oomycetes

Parainfluenza

Human parainfluenza viruses (HPIVs) are a group of four distinct serotypes of single-stranded RNA viruses belonging to the paramyxovirus family.[1] Parainfluenza viruses can be detected via cell culture, immunofluorescent microscopy, and PCR. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Parainfluenza

Parthogenesis

Parthenogenesis (from the Greek παρθένος parthenos, "virgin", + γένεσις genesis, "creation") is an asexual form of reproduction found in females where growth and development of embryos occurs without fertilization by a male. In plants, parthenogenesis means development of an embryo from an unfertilized egg cell, and is a component process of apomixis. The offspring produced by parthenogenesis are always female in species that use the XY sex-determination system.

Photobiomodulation

Low level laser therapy (LLLT, also known as photobiomodulation, cold laser therapy and laser biostimulation) is a medical and veterinary technique in which uses low-level lasers or light-emitting diodes to stimulate or inhibit cellular function.[1]The technique is also known by some other ambiguous terms such as laser therapy and phototherapy (though the latter more accurately refers to light therapy), which may also be used to describe other medical techniques. Basic research and work on specific treatments are being pursued with various modulations of wavelength, intensity, duration and treatment interval being tested.[2] The method is not yet accepted as routine medical therapy and evidence supporting its use is still inadequate.[3] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Low_level_laser_therapy

Photodynamic Therapy

Photodynamic therapy (PDT) is a treatment that uses a drug, called a photosensitizer or photosensitizing agent, and a particular type of light. When photosensitizers are exposed to a specific wavelength of light, they produce a form of oxygen that kills nearby cells (1, 2, 3). Each photosensitizer is activated by light of a specific wavelength (3, 4). This wavelength determines how far the light can travel into the body (3, 5). Thus, doctors use specific photosensitizers and wavelengths of light to treat different areas of the body with PDT. http://www.cancer.gov/cancertopics/factsheet/Therapy/photodynamic

Photorhabdus luminescens

Photorhabdus luminescens (formally Xenorhabdus luminescens) is a Gammaproteobacteria, belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae, and is a symbiotic pathogen of insects. It lives in the gut of an entomopathogenic nematode of the family Heterorhabditidae. When the nematode infects an insect, P. luminescens is released into the blood stream and rapidly kills the insect host (within 48 hours) by producing toxins such as TcA[1]. It also secretes enzymes which break down the body of the infected insect and bioconvert it into nutrients which can be utilised by both nematode and bacteria. In this way, both organisms gain enough nutrients to replicate (or reproduce in the case of the nematode) several times. The bacteria enter the nematode progeny as they develop. P. luminescens also secretes antibiotics to protect against competition from other bacteria.

Phylogenetic analysis

In biology, phylogenetics is the study of evolutionary relatedness among various groups of organisms (for example, species, populations), which is discovered through molecular sequencing data and morphological data matrices. The term phylogenetics is of Greek origin from the terms phyle/phylon (φυλή/φῦλον), meaning "tribe, race," and genetikos (γενετικός), meaning "relative to birth" from genesis (γένεσις, "birth"). Taxonomy, the classification, identification, and naming of organisms, has been richly informed by phylogenetics but remains methodologically and logically distinct.[1] The fields overlap however in the science of phylogenetic systematics – colloquially often called "cladism" or "cladistics" –, where only phylogenetic trees are used to delimit taxa, which represent groups of lineage-connected individuals.[2] In biological systematics as a whole, phylogenetic analyses have become essential in researching the evolutionary tree of life. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phylogenetics

Piezoelectric Charge

Piezoelectric materials Introduction: the piezoelectric effect The piezoelectric effect describes the relation between a mechanical stress and an electrical voltage in solids. It is reversbile: an applied mechanical stress will generate a voltage and an applied voltage will change the shape of the solid by a small amount (up to a 4% change in volume). In physics, the piezoelectric effect can be described as the the link between electrostatics and mechanics. Piezoelectricity is the ability of some materials (notably crystals and certain ceramics, including bone) to generate an electric field or electric potential[1] in response to applied mechanical stress. The effect is closely related to a change of polarization density within the material's volume. If the material is not short-circuited, the applied stress induces a voltage across the material. The word is derived from the Greek piezo or piezein, which means to squeeze or press. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Piezoelectricity

Plasmid

A plasmid is an extra-chromosomal DNA molecule separate from the chromosomal DNA which is capable of replicating independently of the chromosomal DNA.[1] In many cases, it is circular and double-stranded. Plasmids usually occur naturally in bacteria, but are sometimes found in eukaryotic organisms (e.g., the 2-micrometre-ring in Saccharomyces cerevisiae). Plasmids are considered transferable genetic elements, or "replicons", capable of autonomous replication within a suitable host. Plasmids can be found in all three major domains, Archea, Bacteria and Eukarya.[1] Similar to viruses, plasmids are not considered a form of "life" as it is currently defined.[6] Unlike viruses, plasmids are "naked" DNA and do not encode genes necessary to encase the genetic material for transfer to a new host. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Plasmid

Pleomorphism

Plemmorphic Bacteria: In the first decades of the 20th century, the term was used to refer to the supposed ability of bacteria to change shape dramatically or to exist in a number of extreme morphological (changing) forms. This claim sparked a controversy among the microbiologists and split them into two schools: the monomorphists, who opposed the claim, and the pleomorphists (such as Antoine Béchamp). Monomorphic theory, supported by Louis Pasteur, Rudolf Virchow, Ferdinand Cohn, and Robert Koch, emerged to become the dominant paradigm in modern medical science: it is now almost universally accepted that each bacterial cell is derived from a previously existing cell of practically the same size and shape. The modern-day definition of pleomorphism in the context of bacteria is now a variation of size or shape of the cell, rather than a change of shape as previously. Neoplasms: The term is also used in histology and cytology to describe variability in the size and shape of cells and/or their nuclei. It is a feature characteristic of malignant neoplasms. Furthermore, the tumors themselves can express variable appearance, and can then be noted pleomorphic, e.g. Pleomorphic adenoma. Virus: The virions of certain viruses are sometimes seen to express pleomorphism, in the sense that they can show variable appearances. However, this characteristic is in fact not a true pleomorphic characteristic, since one and the same virion doesn't change shape, although its successors might take another shape. One example is the hepatitis B virus.

Pleomorphism

Pleomorphism is the occurrence of two or more structural forms during a life cycle, especially of certain plants. It can also apply at the species level.[1] acteria In the first decades of the 20th century, the term was used to refer to the supposed ability of bacteria to change shape dramatically or to exist in a number of extreme morphological (changing) forms. This claim sparked a controversy among the microbiologists and split them into two schools: the monomorphists, who opposed the claim, and the pleomorphists (such as Antoine Béchamp). Monomorphic theory, supported by Louis Pasteur, Rudolf Virchow, Ferdinand Cohn, and Robert Koch, emerged to become the dominant paradigm in modern medical science: it is now almost universally accepted that each bacterial cell is derived from a previously existing cell of practically the same size and shape. The modern-day definition of pleomorphism in the context of bacteria is now a variation of size or shape of the cell, rather than a change of shape as previously. Bacteria In the first decades of the 20th century, the term was used to refer to the supposed ability of bacteria to change shape dramatically or to exist in a number of extreme morphological (changing) forms. This claim sparked a controversy among the microbiologists and split them into two schools: the monomorphists, who opposed the claim, and the pleomorphists (such as Antoine Béchamp). Monomorphic theory, supported by Louis Pasteur, Rudolf Virchow, Ferdinand Cohn, and Robert Koch, emerged to become the dominant paradigm in modern medical science: it is now almost universally accepted that each bacterial cell is derived from a previously existing cell of practically the same size and shape. The modern-day definition of pleomorphism in the context of bacteria is now a variation of size or shape of the cell, rather than a change of shape as previously. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pleomorphism

Pneumonic plague

Pneumonic plague is one of three main forms of plague, all of which are caused by the bacterium Yersinia pestis. It is more virulent and rarer than bubonic plague. The difference between the versions of plague is simply the location of the infection. Pneumonic plague is an infection in the lung(s), bubonic plague is an infection of the buboes or lymph nodes, while septicemic plague is an infection in the blood stream. Primary pneumonic plague results from inhalation of fine infective droplets and can be transmitted from human to human without involvement of fleas or animals. Untreated pneumonic plague has a very high fatality rate. Although this form of plague has not been in the news for a few years, a recent outbreak of the disease in China began in August 2009 in Ziketan Town located in Qinghai Province and is an ongoing situation. The town was sealed off. According to spokesperson Vivian Tan of the WHO office in Beijing, "In cases like this [in August 2009], we encourage the authorities to identify cases, to investigate any suspicious symptoms among close contacts and to treat confirmed cases as soon as possible. In November of 2009, the Ukraine has begun reporting strange cases of a new flu-like virus that is spreading fast and seems to be more lethal than h1n1. There is a lot of speculation as of this glossary update, whether the current epidemic in the Ukraine is pneumonic plague. WHO is currently investigating.

Polymerase Chain Reaction

In molecular biology, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is a technique to amplify a single or few copies of a piece of DNA across several orders of magnitude, generating thousands to millions of copies of a particular DNA sequence. The method relies on thermal cycling, consisting of cycles of repeated heating and cooling of the reaction for DNA melting and enzymatic replication of the DNA. Primers (short DNA fragments) containing sequences complementary to the target region along with a DNA polymerase (after which the method is named) are key components to enable selective and repeated amplification. As PCR progresses, the DNA generated is itself used as a template for replication, setting in motion a chain reaction in which the DNA template is exponentially amplified. PCR can be extensively modified to perform a wide array of genetic manipulations. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Polymerase_chain_reaction

Porphyria

Porphyrias are a group of inherited or acquired disorders of certain enzymes in the heme biosynthetic pathway (also called porphyrin pathway). They are broadly classified as acute (hepatic) porphyrias and cutaneous (erythropoietic) porphyrias, based on the site of the overproduction and accumulation of the porphyrins (or their chemical precursors). They manifest with either neurological complications or with skin problems (or occasionally both). A clinically induced and histologically identical condition is called pseudoporphyria. Pseudoporphyria is characterized by normal serum and urine porphyrin levels. The term derives from the Greek πορφύρα, porphyra, meaning "purple pigment". The name is likely to have been a reference to the purple discolouration of feces and urine in patients during an attack.[1] Although original descriptions are attributed to Hippocrates, the disease was first explained biochemically by Dr Felix Hoppe-Seyler in 1874,[2] and acute porphyrias were described by the Dutch physician Prof B.J. Stokvis in 1889.[1][3]

Prostaglandin

A prostaglandin is any member of a group of lipid compounds that are derived enzymatically from fatty acids and have important functions in the animal body. Every prostaglandin contains 20 carbon atoms, including a 5-carbon ring. They are mediators and have a variety of strong physiological effects. Although they are technically hormones, they are rarely classified as such. The prostaglandins, together with the thromboxanes and prostacyclins, form the prostanoid class of fatty acid derivatives. The prostanoid is a subclass of eicosanoids. History and name The name prostaglandin derives from the prostate gland. When prostaglandin was first isolated from seminal fluid in 1935 by the Swedish physiologist Ulf von Euler,[1] and independently by M.W. Goldblatt,[2] it was believed to be part of the prostatic secretions. (In fact, prostaglandins are produced by the seminal vesicles). It was later shown that many other tissues secrete prostaglandins for various functions. The first total syntheses of prostaglandin F2α and prostaglandin E2 were reported by E. J. Corey in 1969.[3] In 1971, it was determined that aspirin-like drugs could inhibit the synthesis of prostaglandins. The biochemists Sune K. Bergström, Bengt I. Samuelsson and John R. Vane jointly received the 1982 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine for their research on prostaglandins. Prostaglandins are found in most tissues and organs. They are produced by all nucleated cells except lymphocytes. They are autocrine and paracrine lipid mediators that act upon platelets, endothelium, uterine and mast cells. They are synthesized in the cell from the essential fatty acids[4] (EFAs). Biosynthesis An intermediate is created from phospholipase-A2, then brought out of one of either the cyclooxygenase pathway or the lipoxygenase pathway to form either prostaglandin and thromboxane or leukotriene. The cyclooxygenase pathway produces thromboxane, prostacyclin and prostaglandin D, E and F. The lipoxygenase enzyme pathway is inactive in leukocytes and in macrophages and synthesizes leukotrienes. Name EFA Type Series Gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) via DGLA ω-6 series-1 Arachidonic acid (AA) ω-6 series-2 Eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) ω-3 series-3 lease of prostaglandins from the cell Prostaglandins were originally believed to leave the cells via passive diffusion because of their high lipophilicity. The discovery of the prostaglandin transporter (PGT, SLCO2A1), which mediates the cellular uptake of prostaglandin, demonstrated that diffusion cannot explain the penetration of prostaglandin through the cellular membrane. The release of prostaglandin has now also been shown to be mediated by a specific transporter, namely the multidrug resistance protein 4 (MRP4, ABCC4), a member of the ATP-binding cassette transporter superfamily. Whether MRP4 is the only transporter releasing prostaglandins from the cells is still unclear. Cyclooxygenases Prostaglandins are produced following the sequential oxidation of AA, DGLA or EPA by cyclooxygenases (COX-1 and COX-2) and terminal prostaglandin synthases. The classic dogma is as follows: * COX-1 is responsible for the baseline levels of prostaglandins. * COX-2 produces prostaglandins through stimulation. However, while COX-1 and COX-2 are both located in the blood vessels, stomach and the kidneys, prostaglandin levels are increased by COX-2 in scenarios of inflammation. A third form of COX, termed COX-3 is thought to exist in the brain and may be associated with relief of Headaches when on NSAID therapy. rostaglandin E synthase Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) is generated from the action of prostaglandin E synthases on prostaglandin H2 (PGH2). Several prostaglandin E synthases have been identified. To date, microsomal prostaglandin E synthase-1 emerges as a key enzyme in the formation of PGE2. Other terminal prostaglandin synthases Terminal prostaglandin synthases have been identified that are responsible for the formation of other prostaglandins. For example, hematopoietic and lipocalin prostaglandin D synthases (hPGDS and lPGDS) are responsible for the formation of PGD2 from PGH2. Similarly, prostacyclin (PGI2) synthase (PGIS) converts PGH2 into PGI2. A thromboxane synthase (TxAS) has also been identified. Prostaglandin F synthase (PGFS) catalyzes the formation of 9α,11β-PGF2α,β from PGD2 and PGF2α from PGH2 in the presence of NADPH. This enzyme has recently been crystallyzed in complex with PGD2[5] and bimatoprost[6] (a synthetic analogue of PGF2α). There are currently ten known prostaglandin receptors on various cell types. Prostaglandins ligate a sub-family of cell surface seven-transmembrane receptors, G-protein-coupled receptors. These receptors are termed DP1-2, EP1-4, FP, IP1-2, and TP, corresponding to the receptor that ligates the corresponding prostaglandin (e.g., DP1-2 receptors bind to PGD2). The diversity of receptors means that prostaglandins act on an array of cells and have a wide variety of effects: * cause constriction or dilation in vascular smooth muscle cells * cause aggregation or disaggregation of platelets * sensitize spinal neurons to pain * decrease intraocular pressure * regulate inflammatory mediation * regulate calcium movement * control hormone regulation * control cell growth Prostaglandins are potent but have a short half-life before being inactivated and excreted. Therefore, they send only paracrine (locally active) or autocrine (acting on the same cell from which it is synthesized) signals.

Protozoa

Protozoa or Cornelius protozoans (from Greek proton proton "first" and ζῷα zoa "animals"; singular protozoon; (the word "protozoan" is originally an adjective, used as a noun) are microorganisms classified as unicellular eukaryotes. They play a key role in maintaining the balance of the ecosystem. [1] While there is no exact definition of the term "protozoan", most scientists use the word to refer to a unicellular heterotrophic protist, such as an amoeba or a ciliate. The term algae is used for microorganisms that photosynthesize. However, the distinction between protozoa and algae is often vague. For example, the alga Dinobryon has chloroplasts for photosynthesis, but it can also feed on organic matter and is motile. Many people refer to them as animal-like protists. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Protozoan

Regulatory Vacuum

Nanotechnology is currently being developed and commercialised in a regulatory vacuum, and largely outside of general public awareness, debate, and participation in decision-making processes. The products of nanotechnology research are being prematurely commercialised, manufactured and released into the environment before adequate (if any) health and safety testing or environmental impact assessment. A report released in 2004 by the conservative UK Royal Society, commissioned by the UK government, recommended that nanoparticles not be released until subjected to safety testing and that all nanomaterials be treated as new substances and subjected to dedicated EHS risk assessments. But the UK government has so far failed to act on these recommendations. There is currently no regulatory precautions on nanotechnology or nano-biotechnology developments and testing in the US. Nano-biotech and GMO pesticides are regularly tested and sprayed on live fields and in the environment outside of lab protection.

Renal failure

enal failure or kidney failure is a situation in which the kidneys fail to function adequately. It is divided into acute and chronic forms; either form may be due to a large number of other medical problems. Biochemically, it is typically detected by an elevated serum creatinine. In the science of physiology, renal failure is described as a decrease in the glomerular filtration rate. When the kidneys malfunction, problems frequently encountered are abnormal fluid levels in the body, deranged acid levels, abnormal levels of potassium, calcium, phosphate, hematuria (blood in the urine) and (in the longer term) anemia. Long-term kidney problems have significant repercussions on other diseases, such as cardiovascular disease. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Renal_failure

Rhabditida

Rhabditida is an order of usually free-living microbivorous nematodes (roundworms) living in soil. The Oxyuridae used to be included here, but they rather seem to belong in the Spiruria. Cephalobidae, Panagrolaimidae, Steinernematidae and Strongyloididae seem to be closer to the Tylenchia, regardless of whether these are merged with the Rhabditia or not.[1] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rhabditida

ringworm

Ringworm or scalp itch is a very common fungal infection among children throughout the world. Fungal organisms known as dermatophytes cause scalp ringworm by superficially infecting certain types of tissue found in hair, skin, and nails. This forms the crusty, scaly patches associated with scalp ringworm. In people with weakened immune systems, the fungus can run rampant, causing hair loss, rashes, lesions and spread to the chest and other parts of the body. Ringworm is highly contagious and can spread to multiple members of a family. Ringworm that has "moved in" to susceptible Morgellons patients may be responsible for at least some of the scalp and hair loss issues, along with other complicated parasitical infestation. Dermatophytes invade and digest the tissue's keratin (a type of protein) as the organisms grow, causing thinning and weakened hair, and changed hair structure.

salicylic acid

Salicylic acid (from the Latin word for the willow tree, Salix, from whose bark it can be obtained) is a beta hydroxy acid. This colorless crystalline organic acid is widely used in organic synthesis and functions as a plant hormone. It is derived from the metabolism of salicin. In addition to being a compound that is chemically similar to but not identical to the active component of aspirin (acetylsalicylic acid), it is probably best known for its use in anti-acne treatments. The salts and esters of salicylic acid are known as salicylates. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salicylic_acid

signal transduction

In biology, signal transduction refers to any process by which a cell converts one kind of signal or stimulus into another. Most processes of signal transduction involve ordered sequences of biochemical reactions inside the cell, which are carried out by enzymes and activated by second messengers, resulting in a signal transduction pathway. Such processes are usually rapid, lasting on the order of milliseconds in the case of ion flux, or minutes for the activation of protein- and lipid-mediated kinase cascades, but some can take hours, and even days (as is the case with gene expression), to complete. The number of proteins and other molecules participating in the events involving signal transduction increases as the process emanates from the initial stimulus, resulting in a "signal cascade," beginning with a relatively small stimulus that elicits a large response. This is referred to as amplification of the signal. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Signal_transduction

Splanchnic nerves

The splanchnic nerves are paired nerves that contribute to the innervation of the viscera, carrying fibers of the autonomic nervous system (visceral efferent fibers) as well as sensory fibers from the organs (visceral afferent fibers). All carry sympathetic fibers except for the pelvic splanchnic nerves, which carry parasympathetic fibers. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Splanchnic_nerves

ssDNA

Single-stranded DNA. A DNA molecule consisting of only one chain of alternating sugars (deoxyribose) and phosphates.

Stealth-adapted virus

he term stealth-adapted virus is used to describe cell damaging (cytopathic) viruses that lack genes coding for antigens targeted by the cellular immune system. Infection with stealth-adapted viruses do not evoke the inflammatory reaction typical of most cytopathic viruses. Missing antigenic proteins enable stealth viruses to escape recognition by the immune system. Atypically-structured cell-damaging viruses were initially proposed by W. John Martin, M.D., Ph.D., who introduced the term 'stealth viruses' to highlight their evasion of effective immune recognition.

Strongyloides

Strongyloides stercoralis, also known as the threadworm, is the scientific name of a human parasitic roundworm causing the disease of strongyloidiasis. Strongyloides stercoralis is a nematode that can parasitize humans. The adult parasitic stage lives in tunnels in the mucosa of the small intestine. The infectious larvae penetrate the skin when there is contact with the soil. While S. stercoralis is attracted to chemicals such as carbon dioxide or sodium chloride, these chemicals are very non-specific. Larvae have been thought to locate their hosts via chemicals in the skin, predominantly urocanic acid, a histidine metabolite on the uppermost layer of skin that is removed by sweat or the daily skin-shedding cycle. [7] Urocanic acid concentrations can be up to five times greater in the foot than any other part of the human body. Some of them enter the superficial veins and ride the blood vessels to the lungs, where they enter the alveoli. They are then coughed up and swallowed into the gut, where they parasitise the intestinal mucosa (duodenum and jejunum). However, research has shown that most of the larvae that penetrate the skin migrate randomly through the body until they reach the small intestine. Only females will reach reproductive adulthood in the intestine. Female strongyloides reproduce through parthenogenesis. The eggs hatch in the intestine and young larvae are then excreted in the feces. It takes about two weeks to reach egg development from the initial skin penetration. By this process, S. stercoralis can cause both respiratory and gastrointestinal symptoms

Strongyloidiasis

Strongyloidiasis is a human parasitic disease caused by the nematode (roundworm) Strongyloides stercoralis. This infection can be lifelong, people have been known to have the infection up to 65 years after first exposure. They are difficult to eliminate completely. The Strongyloides' life cycle is more complex than that of most nematodes with its alternation between free-living and parasitic cycles, and its potential for autoinfection and multiplication within the host. Two types of cycles exist: * Free-living cycle: The rabditiform larvae passed in the stool can either molt twice and become infective filariform larvae (direct development) or molt four times and become free living adult males and females that mate and produce eggs from which rabditiform larvae hatch. The latter in turn can either develop into a new generation of free-living adults, or into infective filariform larvae. The filariform larvae penetrate the human host skin to initiate the parasitic cycle. * Parasitic cycle: Filariform larvae in contaminated soil penetrate the human skin , and are transported to the lungs where they penetrate the alveolar spaces; they are carried through the bronchial tree to the pharynx, are swallowed and then reach the small intestine. In the small intestine they molt twice and become adult female worms. The females live threaded in the epithelium of the small intestine and by parthenogenesis produce eggs, which yield rabditiform larvae. The rabditiform larvae can either be passed in the stool (see "Free-living cycle" above), or can cause autoinfection. In autoinfection, the rabditiform larvae become infective filariform larvae, which can penetrate either the intestinal mucosa (internal autoinfection) or the skin of the perianal area (external autoinfection); in either case, the filariform larvae may follow the previously described route, being carried successively to the lungs, the bronchial tree, the pharynx, and the small intestine where they mature into adults; or they may disseminate widely in the body. To date, occurrence of autoinfection in humans with helminthic infections is recognized only in Strongyloides stercoralis and Capillaria philippinensis infections. In the case of Strongyloides, autoinfection may explain the possibility of persistent infections for many years in persons who have not been in an endemic area and of hyperinfections in immunodepressed individuals.

Sudden oak death

Sudden Oak Death is the common name of a disease caused by the oomycete plant pathogen Phytophthora ramorum. The disease kills oak and other species of tree and has had devastating effects on the oak populations in California and Oregon as well as also being present in Europe. Symptoms include bleeding cankers on the tree's trunk and dieback of the foliage, in many cases eventually leading to the death of the tree. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sudden_Oak_Death

Sulfur

Sulfur or sulphur (pronounced /ˈsʌlfər/ SUL-fər, see spelling below) is the chemical element that has the atomic number 16. It is denoted with the symbol S. It is an abundant, multivalent non-metal. Sulfur, in its native form, is a yellow crystalline solid. In nature, it can be found as the pure element and as sulfide and sulfate minerals. It is an essential element for life and is found in two amino acids, cysteine and methionine. Its commercial uses are primarily in fertilizers, but it is also widely used in black gunpowder, matches, insecticides and fungicides. Elemental sulfur crystals are commonly sought after by mineral collectors for their brightly colored polyhedron shapes. In nonscientific contexts, it can also be referred to as brimstone. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sulfur The key thing to understand in reference to this site is that it is a fungacide.

Thrombocytopenia

Thrombocytopenia (or -paenia, or thrombopenia in short ) is the presence of relatively few platelets in blood. Generally speaking, in humans, a normal platelet count ranges from 150,000 and 450,000 per mm3.[1] These limits, however, are determined by the 2.5th lower and upper percentile, and a deviation does not necessarily imply any form of disease. The number of platelets in a blood sample also decreases rather quickly with time and a low platelet count may be caused by a delay between sampling and analysis. One common definition is a number lower than 100,000.[2][3] Signs and symptoms Often, low platelet levels do not lead to clinical problems; rather, they are picked up on a routine full blood count (or CBC, complete blood count). Occasionally, there may be bruising, particularly purpura in the forearms, nosebleeds and/or bleeding gums. It is vital that a full medical history is elicited, to ensure the low platelet count is not due to a secondary process. It is also important to ensure that the other blood cell types red blood cells, and white blood cells, are not also suppressed.

Transducer

A transducer is a device, electrical, electronic, electro-mechanical, electromagnetic, photonic, or photovoltaic, that converts one type of energy or physical attribute to another for various purposes including measurement or information transfer (for example: pressure sensors). There are two kinds of transducers. A sensor is used to detect a parameter in one form and report it in another form of energy (usually an electrical or digital signal), such as a tachometer. An actuator is used for the transformation of energy or in other words, actuator is the one which gets actuated or stands responsible for the output action, in that it converts electrical signal into generally nonelectrical energy. An example of an actuator is a loudspeaker which converts an electrical signal into a variable magnetic field and, subsequently, into acoustic waves. The third kind of transducer has both functions -- for example, a typical ultrasonic transducer switches back and forth many times a second between acting as an actuator to produce ultrasonic waves, and acting as a sensor to detect ultrasonic waves.

Trypanosoma cruzi

The flagellate protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi causes the deadly Chagas' disease. T. cruzi is commonly transmitted to humans and other mammals by an insect vector, the blood-sucking assassin bugs of the subfamily Triatominae (family Reduviidae) most commonly species belonging to the Triatoma, Rhodnius, and Panstrongylus genera. The disease may also be spread through blood transfusion and organ transplantation, ingestion of food contaminated with parasites, and from a mother to her fetus.

Unit 731

Insects have been the biowarfare delivery system of choice since World War 2. During WW2 the Japanese Imperial Army created a division of biowarfare called Unit 731. In occupied Manchuria in 1936, Japanese scientists used scores of human subjects to test the lethality of various disease agents like anthrax, cholera, typhoid, and plague. as many as 10,000 people were killed in these experiments. Inactive military campaigns, several hundred thousand people, mostly Chinese civilians became victims to an "Insect vector." In octover of 1940, the Japanese dropped paper bags filled with plague-infested fleas over the cities of Ningbo and Quzhou in Zhejiang Province.

Varicella Virus

Varicella is a disease caused by varicella-zoster virus. It is transmitted via the respiratory route, is highly communicable and mainly affects young children. An effective vaccine is now available, whose routine use is advised by health authorities in the USA and which can prevent severe disease, although breakthrough infections do occur. In deciding whether or not to include a vaccine in the routine vaccination schedule, knowledge of the morbidity of the disease in question is fundamental. Although reporting of varicella is compulsory in Catalonia, doctors only have to report the weekly number of cases diagnosed, and not their age distribution. Given that recent data on the prevalence of the infection in Catalonia according to age groups is available, it was considered that, using these data, an estimation of age-related incidence could be made.

Virus

A virus (from the Latin virus meaning toxin or poison) is an infectious agent too small to be seen directly with a light microscope. They are not made of cells and can only replicate inside the cells of another organism (the viruses' host). Viruses infect all types of organisms, from animals and plants to bacteria and archaea.[1] Since the initial discovery of tobacco mosaic virus by Martinus Beijerinck in 1898,[2] about 5,000 of them have been described in detail,[3] although there are millions of different types of viruses.[4] Viruses are found in almost every ecosystem on Earth and these minute structures are the most abundant type of biological entity.[5][6] The study of viruses is known as virology, a sub-specialty of microbiology. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Virus

xenobiotics

A xenobiotic is a chemical which is found in an organism but which is not normally produced or expected to be present in it. It can also cover substances which are present in much higher concentrations than are usual. Specifically, drugs such as antibiotics are xenobiotics in humans because the human body does not produce them itself, nor are they part of a normal diet. Natural compounds can also become xenobiotics if they are taken up by another organism, such as the uptake of natural human hormones by fish found downstream of sewage treatment plant outfalls, or the chemical defenses produced by some organisms as protection against predators. However, the term xenobiotics is very often used in the context of pollutants such as dioxins and polychlorinated biphenyls and their effect on the biota, because xenobiotics are understood as substances foreign to an entire biological system, i.e. artificial substances, which did not exist in nature before their synthesis by humans. The term xenobiotic is derived from the Greek words ξένος (xenos) = foreigner, stranger and βίος (bios, vios) = life, plus the Greek suffix for adjectives -τικός, -ή, -ό (tic). http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Xenobiotics

Yersinia pestis

Yersinia pestis (formerly Pasteurella pestis) is a Gram-negative rod-shaped bacterium belonging to the family Enterobacteriaceae. It is a facultative anaerobe that can infect humans and other animals. Human Y. pestis infection takes three main forms: pneumonic, septicemic, and the notorious bubonic plagues.[1] All three forms have been responsible for high mortality rates in epidemics throughout human history, including the Black Death (a bubonic plague) that accounted for the death of at least one-third of the European population in 1347 to 1353. On September 13, 2009, Malcolm J. Casadaban, a University of Chicago molecular genetics professor, who was doing research involving Yersinia pestis died and his death later was determined related to this bacteria, possibly contracted in his own lab.[2]. Recently Y. pestis has gained attention as a possible biological warfare agent and the CDC has classified it as category A pathogen requiring preparation for a possible terrorist attack. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Yersinia_pestis

Zeolite

Zeolites are microporous, aluminosilicate minerals commonly used as commercial adsorbents.[1] The term zeolite was originally coined in 1756 by Swedish mineralogist Axel Fredrik Cronstedt, who observed that upon rapidly heating the material stilbite, it produced large amounts of steam from water that had been adsorbed by the material. Based on this, he called the material zeolite, from the Greek ζέω (zeō), meaning "boil" and λίθος (lithos), meaning "stone". http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Zeolites

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